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从信息结构角度看倒装句的句式结构

2018-04-14黄世平

关键词:助动词句首语序

黄世平

1. 引言

英语句子的信息分为已知信息和新信息,信息的组织原则是句尾焦点和句尾重心。本文试图从信息结构角度分析倒装句的句式结构以及信息组织原则的运用,重点讨论了两种新信息置于句首而引起的倒装句式, 即助动词置于主语前和谓语整体置于主语前的倒装句式。另外,本文还讨论了从句中新信息的前置现象。

《普通高中英语课程标准》(2003,教育部)中的语言知识目标是:语音、词汇、语法、功能和话题。可见,语法学习是高中英语学习重要组成部分。倒装句是高中英语七级目标要求理解、八级目标要求掌握的语法项目。在讲授倒装句时,教师如果机械地罗列倒装句的用法,学生只会死记硬背语法条目,而不能恰当地运用。《普通高中英语课程标准》(2003,教育部)规定:“高中阶段的语法教学,应从语言运用的角度出发,把语言的形式、意义和用法有机地结合起来,要引导学生在语境中了解和掌握语法的表意功能”。倒装句语序的变化其实就是信息的转移。

2. 英语的信息结构

英语句子的信息可以分为已知信息(given information)和新信息(new information)。已知信息是指说话人已经给出的或交际双方都知道的信息,通常放在句首;新信息是说话人即将要描述或者对方不知道的信息,通常放在句尾。例如:Tom is my good friend. He is good at playing the piano. 其中,he是已知信息,is good at…是新信息。信息组织原则是句尾焦点(end focus)和句尾重心(end weight)。句尾焦点是位于句尾需要强调的新信息,例如:The best friend of mine is Jack. 句尾重心是指说话人为了实现句子的平衡,把冗长的结构放在句尾,句尾重心也常是新信息。例如:It is important that we should learn a foreign language. 句尾焦点和句尾重心的原则又叫可加工性原则( processibility principle),句尾信息可以得到进一步加工处理。例如:What I want to see is Jack who is a famous film star.

3. 倒装句句式的主要类型

3.1助动词置于主语前面

助动词(auxiliary verb)是谓语的一部分,帮助说明谓语动词的时态、语态和语气或表示强调,是位于主语后面的新信息。例如:①I can do it. ②Tom was doing his homework last night. ③David did see Peter yesterday. 助动词置于主语前可以表示疑问语气,例如: Did David see Peter yesterday? 可以看出,一般疑问句只单是助动词新信息前置,而句子其它信息的位置不变。下面主要讨论句子的某种新信息置于句首时,助动词置于主语前的倒装句式,这种倒装形式叫部分倒装(partial inversion)。

(1)简单句中否定新信息置于句首

简单句中,否定新信息置于句首表示强调时,助动词置于主语前面。这样,兩种新信息前置起到了强烈的强调作用。例如:He has never before seen anybody who can play tennis as well as Robert. 当never before置于句首表示强调时,助动词置于主语前, 句式就是:Never before has she seen anybody who can play tennis as well as Robert. (江西卷,2012) 再如:①Not a single song did she sing at yesterdays party. (上海卷,2000) ②Not until recently did they encourage the development of tourist-related activities in the rural areas. (江苏卷,2016) 表否定的词或短语有:no, not, never, seldom, hardly, rarely, not only, not until, at no time, under/in no circumstances等。 Only意为“仅仅,只有”,含有对其它情况否定的意味,所以本文把only也归为否定词。例如:You can expect to get a pay rise only with hard work. 当句尾新信息置于句首表示强调时,助动词置于主语前,句式就是:Only with hard work can you expect to get a pay rise. (北京卷,2001) 再如:① Only after talking to two students did I realize that having strong motivation is one of the biggest factors in reaching goals.(湖南卷,2015)②Only if people of all the countries are united can we solve the existing problems in the world. (湖北卷,2010)

位于句首的主语是已知信息,当否定词强调这类主语时,新信息没有前置,助动词也不前置,所以句式仍是陈述式。例如:①Only you can solve the problem. (√) ②Only can you solve the problem. (×)③Not you but I am responsible for the accident. (√) ④Not you but am I responsible for the accident. (×)

(2) 复合句中否定新信息置于句首

复合句中,否定新信息置于句首表示强调时,否定信息所在的分句的助动词置于主语前,其它分句的语序不变化,即“谁的新信息前置,谁就用倒装语序”。

①并列复合句

并列复合句中,否定新信息置于句首表示强调时,其所在的分句的助动词置于主语前,其它分句语序不变。例如:The nurses not only want a pay increase, they want reduced hours as well. 上句中,否定新信息not only修饰前一分句的谓语动词want。当not only置于句首时,前一分句的助动词置于主语前,后一分句语序不变,即:Not only do the nurses want a pay increase, they want reduced hours as well. (全国大纲卷,2014 ) 再如:No sooner had Mo Yan stepped on the stage than the audience broke into thunderous applause. (陕西卷,2014)

②主从复合句

主从复合句中,当主句的否定新信息置于句首强调时,主句的助动词置于主语前,从句的语序不变。例如:He didnt begin to know how important the family was for him until he left his home. 上句中, not修饰主句的谓语动词begin, 而不是修饰从句的谓语动词left。所以当否定新信息not until置于句首时,主句的助动词置于主语前,从句的语序不变,即:Not until he left his home did he begin to know how important the family was for him. (江西卷,2010) 再如:Only when Lily walked into the office did she realize that she had left the contract at home. (天津卷,2015)

③It分裂复合句

It分裂句的结构是it is/was+ 句子被強调成分(focus)+ that/who/whom +其它句子成分。它把一个句子分裂成两部分,被强调的成分充当主句的句尾焦点,其它成分充当从句的成分。有时,尽管被强调成分是否定信息,看似置于被分裂句子的主语前,但被强调部分处在主句句尾焦点的位置,信息没有前置,所以助动词不能置于主语前,主从句的句式都是陈述式。例如:It was not until I came here that I realized this place was famous for not only its beauty but also its weather. (湖南卷,2012) 再如:It was only after he had read the papers that Mr. Gross realized the task before him was extremely difficult to complete. (全国卷Ⅱ, 2013)

3.2表程度的新信息置于句首

表示程度的新信息位于句首强调时,助动词置于主语前。例如:The parents love their son to such extent that they have spoilt him. 当to such extent置于句首时,助动词置于主语前,句式就是:To such an extent do the parents love their son that they have spoilt him. 再如:①So much homework did we have to do that we had no time to take a rest. (福建卷,2006) ②So successful was her business that Marie was able to set up new branches elsewhere. (陕西, 2007)

3.3表衔接的新信息置于句首

为了使句子之间衔接紧密,当后一句话的句尾新信息置于句首时,助动词置于主语前,这在英语修辞上叫做顶针或蝉联(anadiplosis)。例如:A: Toms room gets very cold at night. B: Mine gets very cold, too. 显然,very cold at night和mine意义不连贯。如果B句的句尾新信息very cold, too用so替代置于句首,助动词置于主语前,句式就是:A: Toms room gets very cold at night. B: So does mine. 显然,句子衔接紧密,语意连贯。再如:①A: I dont know about you, but Im sick and tired of this weather. B: So am I. I cant stand all this rain. (山东卷,2012)②If Joes wife wont go to the party, neither will he.(全国卷 II,2007)

如果后一句话的主语是已知信息,根据信息结构理论,这类主语不能放在句尾,句式仍然是陈述式。例如:A: Well I do think the rabbit is a beautiful, gentle animal which can run very fast. B: So it is. (辽宁卷,2005) 其中,主语it指代前面的the rabbit,是已知信息,不能放在句尾。再如:A: Maggie had a wonderful time at the party. B: So she did and so did I. (安徽卷,2005) 其中,she是已知信息,要放在句首;而I是新信息,要放在句尾焦点的位置。

3.4谓语动词整体置于主语前面

有些谓语动词是不及物动词、连系动词或转述动词,这些动词和句尾新信息构成一个意义整体。当句尾新信息置于句首强调时,谓语要紧跟其后整体置于主语前,不是另加助动词前置,主语就成为句尾焦点,这种倒装形式叫完全倒装(full inversion)。例如:A movie star will come into the room. 上句中,谓语will come和句尾新信息into the room是意义整体,当句尾新信息置于句首时,谓语要整体前置,而不是助动词will置于主语前。例如:Into the room will come a movie star. (√) Into the room will a movie star come. (×)。

(1)方向状语置于句首

英语中,有一些表示位置移动的方向状语,如out ,in, away ,off, up, down等。方向状语和谓语动词构成意义整体,当方向状语置于句首强调时,谓语整体前置,主语成为句尾焦点。例如:The door opened and the dog rushed out. 当out置于句首强调时,谓语整体置于主语前,句式就是:The door opened and out rushed the dog. 再如:Down came the whip, and away went the horse.

(2)时间状语置于句首

少数时间状语和谓语动词构成意义整体,当时间状语置于句首强调时,谓语整体置于主语前,主语成为句尾焦点。例如:For a moment nothing happened. The voices all shouting together came then. 当then置于句首时,谓语整体置于主语前,句式就是:For a moment nothing happened. Then came the voices all shouting together. (福建卷,2009) 再如:My brother was admitted to Zhejiang University this summer. Now comes my turn to shine.

(3)表语置于句首

表语是补充说明主语的句尾新信息,和连系动词成为一个意义整体。当表语置于句首强调时,谓语整体直接置于主语前,主语便成为句尾焦点。例如:A tall tree with a history of 1,000 years stands just in front of our house. 当表语置于句首时,谓语整体前置,句式就是:Just in front of our house stands a tall tree with a history of 1,000 years. (上海卷,2006 ) 再如:①I went into the classroom, and standing near the window was Peter. ②Such was Albert Einstein, a simple man of great achievements.

(4)直接引语置于句首

直接引语是位于转述动词后的句尾新信息,和转述动词构成意义整体。当直接引语置于句首强调时,转述动词整体置于主语前,主语就成为句尾焦点。例如:The teacher standing at the door said: “Why are you always late?” 当直接引语置于句首时,谓语整体置于主语前,句式就是: “Why are you always late?” said the teacher standing at the door.

(5)信息组织原则的运用

谓语直接前置在主语前,主语成为句尾焦点,这是完全倒装句的句式特征。根据信息结构理论,完全倒装句式也有几种例外的情况。

如果主语是已知信息,就不能放在句尾,句式是陈述句式。例如:①The children saw the school bus and in they rushed.(√)②The children saw the school bus and in rushed they.(×)句中的they指代上文的the children,是已知信息,不能放在句尾。有时,虽然主语是已知信息,但它后面带有较长的修饰语,主语就成了焦点信息,根据句尾焦点和句尾重心的原则,这类主语就要放在句尾, 句式是完全倒装句式。例如:The children saw the school bus and in rushed they with schoolbags on their backs.

如果谓语动词带有较长的修饰语,谓语就是焦点信息。根据句尾焦点和句尾重心的信息原则,这类谓语要放在句尾焦點位置,句式用陈述语式。例如:①“How dare you say so?” David said loudly and angrily. (√) ②“How dare you say so?” said David loudly and angrily. (×)

4. 从句内部的前置现象

从句的语序是陈述语序,这是从句的句式特征。一般来讲,当从句的新信息前置时,助动词或谓语不能置于主语前,句式仍然是陈述式;但是,为了增强虚拟效果,虚拟条件从句的句式还可以扭曲变化,可以是倒装句式。

4.1让步状语从句

让步状语从句的新信息前置时,谓语动词或助动词不能置于主语前,句式是陈述式。例如:Though he may be a quiet student, he talks a lot about his favorite singers after class. 当a quiet student置于句首时,句式是陈述式,即:Quiet student as he may be, he talks a lot about his favorite singers after class. (重庆卷,2005) 为了体现句首信息的简短明快,一些修饰语如冠词可以省略。再如:①Unsatisfied though he was with the payment, he took the job just to get some work experience. (重庆卷,2009) ②Try as she might, Sue couldn't get the door open. (全国卷 I,2011) 让步状语从句发生前置现象时,引导词though/although还可以用as代替。

4.2虚拟条件从句

虚拟条件从句表示与事实相反的情况,时态发生了扭曲变化。例如:If they had known what was coming next, they might have had second thoughts. 可以看出,虚拟条件从句的时态是过去完成式而不是过去式,时态发生了扭曲变化;但语序还是陈述语序,符合从句的句式特征。虚拟条件句还可以从句式上发生扭曲变化。如果上句had置于主语前,省略引导词if, 句式就是:Had they known what was coming next, they might have had second thoughts. (浙江卷,2012)可以看出,虚拟条件从句的句式是倒装句式,从句式上发生了扭曲变化。再如:① Were it not for the support of the teachers, the student could not overcome her difficulty. (江苏卷,2017) ②Should it rain tomorrow, we would have to put off the visit to Yangpu Bridge. (上海卷,1994)倒装的虚拟条件从句是一种假性从句,是为了增强虚拟效果,并不能改变从句是陈述式的句式特征。

5. 结束语

《普通高中英语课程标准》(2003,教育部)规定:“……着重提高学生用英语获取信息、处理信息、分析问题和解决问题的能力。”教师如果只罗列语法条目,学生死记硬背语法条条框框,这只会挫败学生的学习积极性。在倒装句教学中,教师应该结合具体的语境,从信息结构的角度,分析倒装句式的信息变化及其表意功能,从而增强学生的信息处理能力。所以,在语法教学中,教师不仅要让学生知道“是什么”,更要让学生知道“为什么”,从而增强学生的信息处理能力和语言运用能力。

[1] Alexander, L.G. Longman English Grammar [M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 1991.

[2] 1976. Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. Cohesion in English [M]. London: Longman, 1976.

[3] Sinclair, J. Collins Cobuild English Grammar [M]. 北京:商務印书馆, 1999.

[4] Quirk, R. S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, and J. Svartvik. A grammar of contemporary English [M]. London: Longman, 1979.

[5] 教育部. 普通高中英语课程标准(实验)[S]. 北京:人民教育出版社, 2003.

[6] 胡壮麟. 语篇的衔接与连贯[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社, 1994.

(作者单位:浙江省诸暨荣怀学校)

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