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马克思主义中国化与中国多民族国家的现代重构

2016-04-01邹诗鹏

文史哲 2016年1期
关键词:民族国家国族马克思主义中国化

邹诗鹏



马克思主义中国化与中国多民族国家的现代重构

邹诗鹏

摘要:马克思对古典自由主义的批判,蕴涵着对单一民族国家及其民族国家观的批判,马克思主义东扩则带来激进的民族独立与解放运动,包括带来现代中国的独立与解放。中国有着独特的中华民族多元一体的格局及其传统,因而其多民族国家建构不可能延续前苏联模式。在近世以来的中国政治资源中,自由主义以及保守主义都有民族国家之诉求,中国化的马克思主义则自觉地批判了这一诉求,努力实现中华统一多民族国家的现代重构,并且在改革开放之后依然得以延续,这使得中国不可能重蹈前苏联之覆辙。现代中国多民族国家的重构,既从属于马克思主义中国化的历史逻辑,也是中华民族传统现代转化的必然结果。

关键词:马克思主义中国化;民族国家;多民族国家;国族;民族主义

对于马克思主义的一项历史性回应或结果,就是民族主义(实为“国族主义”)浪潮及其在全球展开的以现代民族国家为基本政治单元的现代世界格局。大体说来,西方现代民族国家体系是古典自由主义及社会达尔文主义的政治结果,其拓展也可以看成西方世界对马克思主义及其激进社会运动的反拨性回应;东方社会主义民族国家,则是马克思主义与东方民族各自独特的民族解放、国家独立及其现代化事业直接结合的结果,其间现代中国与前苏联又存在着重要区别。现代中国多民族国家的重构,从属于马克思主义中国化的历史逻辑,且是马克思主义中国化实践的题中应有之义,同时也是中华民族传统现代转化的结果。这一历史实践,连同其略显复杂的当代境况,值得阐述。

马克思的学说在何种程度上与民族国家发生关联,值得探究。马克思对古典自由主义的批判,即包含了对单一民族国家构想的批判。单一民族国家(single nation,single state)是合于古典自由主义及其早期资本主义的民族国家类型,单一民族国家理论体系,正是由亚当·斯密初步开展而在李斯特那里完成的。古典自由主义及其古典国民经济学,即是单一民族国家观的学说及其学理支撑①。古典自由主义最初偏向于无政府主义,但在论证财产权、国民保护以及领土归属的过程中,逐渐形成单一的民族国家观。对于亚当·斯密而言,单一民族国家观乃从民族到国家的直观想象;对于穆勒与马志尼而言,则是政治国家对民族的自觉规定(其间欧洲各国又有差异)。前者只是族群国家(ethnic nation),后者则是民族国家(nation state)框架下的民族自觉及其自治,尽管在现代世界史上,族群国家与民族国家之间一直处于难分难舍且艰难的结合地带(其中,族群国家与民族国家各自理据迥异,前者是族群的自然且前现代式的集聚,后者则是国族的集聚与社会动员)。而且尽管“族群国家的思想往往孕育着悲惨事件诸如人口迁徙、领土瓜分和种族清洗的种子”②,但是,在民族国家的形成过程中,族群国家实际上被民族国家所默认,并不加分辨地形成所谓单一民族国家观。而单一民族国家观,同时也成为当时保守的国家主义及其历史主义的现成观念。18世纪末至19世纪初,英法“先进国家”大体都经历了从普遍化的世界主义向国家主义的转变,而“落后”的德国所表现出来的观念论探索,有其实实在在的客观精神,即“国族精神”或“民族精神”的自觉——一种最后由俾斯麦实现出来的国家精神。欧洲先进国家的现代转变经历了由此前激进的社会运动(启蒙运动算是其中温和的一种,激进民主主义及共产主义运动乃其典型)到保守的民族国家观再到扩张的帝国主义的转变,在这一向海外持续扩张的殖民化世界地理空间中,民族国家与帝国主义合为一体,即“民族帝国主义”。

①参见[英]埃里克·霍布斯鲍姆:《民族与民族主义》,李金梅译,上海:上海人民出版社,2007年,第32页。

②[英]莫迪默等著:《人民·民族·国家》,刘泓等译,北京:中央民族大学出版社,2009年,第145页。

马克思显然反对本质上已经资本主义化的民族国家观。马克思要求以人类社会并通过将无产阶级确定为历史主体,进而取代市民社会、阶级以及民族。马克思的未来社会构想,显然不属于民族国家所厘定的古典自由主义框架。古典自由主义所确定的,本质上是自由主义的民族主义。这一观念的核心理据看起来是这样的:“在巩固民族理想的同时并不无视其他的人类价值观念——民族的理想应该依据这种人类价值来衡量。这个过程的结果是:对于合法的民族目标以及追求整个目标的手段的重新厘定。”*[以色列]耶尔·塔米尔:《自由主义的民族主义》,陶东风译,上海:上海译文出版社,2010年,第74页。然而,在西式民族国家相当长的实现过程中,却是古希腊式城邦对外邦的优越感以及城邦中自由民对奴隶的“自由权力”之剥夺的再现,并且带有现代帝国主义的历史本质,因而愈是单一的民族国家,就愈是激化新的民族矛盾及其种族冲突,而保守主义显然越来越难以“兜住”被压迫、被剥削民族反抗西式民族帝国主义、寻求民族独立解放的“底”。实际上,在亚当·斯密及李斯特等借用民族国家的“门槛原则”所强化的地域的民族国家,本身已经隐含着民族沙文主义指向,这一在很大程度上与自由主义的民族主义初衷相违拗的倾向,在资本主义的随后发展中变成了现实。

马克思主义的兴起,本身就表明此前单一民族国家观的不可能。但马克思的人类社会构想显然反对无政府主义,也拒斥空想共产主义,因而又蕴含着相应的民族国家形式。在现实的意义上,马克思主义蕴含或默认了多民族国家。在马克思那里,民族虽然也是一个社会实体,但不像阶级、国家那样只是政治性的社会实体,民族还有其人类学的固有属性及其多样性。马克思显然是重视民族多样性的。正是基于这一点,马克思十分关注东方社会独特的发展道路,强调应尊重东方民族对于现代发展道路的自主选择。马克思对西方资产阶级民族的批判,直接蕴含着对东方民族的价值关怀。

马克思虽然没有对“多民族国家”作出论证,但马克思对古典自由主义与保守主义的双重批判,即蕴含了对单一民族国家观的批判,进而蕴含着多民族国家的合理建构。在马克思那里,欧洲民族国家与欧洲资产阶级具有同构性,因而马克思对资产阶级历史性质及其局限性的判定,实际上蕴含着对欧洲自由主义的民族国家的批判。在马克思的人类解放构想中,人类社会中的被压迫的阶级及民族,才是未来世界的历史主体。在这样的视野中,马克思把非西方民族看成是当然的解放主体。在现代民族国家的建构上,马克思主义在西方与东方呈现出不同的历史效应。对西方而言,马克思主义之后是西方自由主义的多民族国家体系的建立以及西方中心主义的持续巩固,在那里,马克思主义所批判的资产阶级国家,在汲取马克思的批判资源并建立起西方现代多民族国家体系时,也同马克思主义相疏离且对立起来。对东方而言,马克思主义的人类解放思想成为落后民族国家实现民族解放与国家独立的当然理据与指导思想,因此,东方世界的现代民族主义运动及其多民族国家重构,与马克思主义更具亲和性,马克思主义运动由此实现其东扩进程。中国现代民族国家的重构,显然从属于这一历史进程,并构成了其中的典范。

马克思主义中国化的历史,直接体现为中国现代多民族国家的重构。

现代中国之所以拒斥自由主义并选择马克思主义,是由中国传统、近代中国的世界处境以及现代中国国族建构的历史任务所决定的。中国不同于欧洲,欧洲在文化传统、地缘、地理、人口以及政治上具有多个中心,因而“分”是基本传统,“合”虽常成一时之态但终究是理想。近世以来的工商业及资本主义更是多个民族国家的分治格局,自威斯特法伦合约之后,整个欧洲逐渐步入民族国家传统,至19世纪中期以后形成西方民族国家格局。在西方民族国家与自由主义之间存在着一种互动关系。作为去封建王朝及其教权而诞生的民族国家,本身就是世俗国家及其王权的形式;民族国家同时也是市民社会的实现形式,市民社会离不开民族国家,吉登斯则干脆将二者等同起来。由市民社会而形成的自由主义显然进一步巩固了民族国家,因而伴随着古典自由主义的形成,也确定了民族国家的基本传统,即多个或单一民族国家或多民族国家形成的欧洲民族国家的分治格局。

中国则是以中原农业文明为中心、以儒家为文化主干、以汉民族辐射和涵化周边民族同时共享中华民族大家庭的东方古老国家。这是一个以中华传统为核心认同、以“和”与“合”为核心理念的文明体,其政治意识中包含着古老的社会主义传统而不是自由主义及资本主义传统。在中华民族认同中,没有也不可能接受所谓单一民族国家观念。以西方民族国家为主导的近代世界,不可能给中国“分享”资本主义的外部空间,不可能任由中国选择自由主义式的多民族国家建制,反而通过武力与资本的强力输出,使中国沦为西方及其帝国主义进行海外掠夺与扩张的殖民地及半殖民地。因此,中国现代民族国家的重构,一方面须顺应世界文明之大势,另一方面注定不能依赖于西方资本主义及其民族国家建立的既有路径。事实上,试图以西式自由主义的民族国家重构为典范的中国民族资产阶级革命只能是不彻底的革命,无论单一民族国家还是自由主义的多民族国家,在中国现实历史中都是不可能的。

自19世纪50年代起,伴随欧洲民族国家体系的成熟,便是中国建立民族国家的焦虑。李鸿章曾断定中国处于“三千年未有之大变局”,此焦虑也是题中应有之义。面对西方列强之船坚炮利及其分化图谋,晚清不仅呈分崩离析之势,而且逐渐分化为列强之殖民地。1902年,梁启超创造性地提出“中华民族”概念,以之为统一中国之“国族”概念,孙中山也对“国族”概念多有论述。但考察当时中国知识界,多接受欧洲社会达尔文主义及其种族主义。在此背景下,实是接受了单一民族(其中相对进步的力量则接受了自由主义,但在社会达尔文主义背景下,单一民族国家与自由主义又是合而为一的)。从有关文献看,梁启超(包括康有为)已形成民族国家的自觉,其标准大体是西式民族国家,但已经开始注意到中国国族的特殊性。而且,同孙中山早期、邹容、汪精卫主张极端的单一民族国家相比,梁启超是将满族包容于中华民族之内,坊间称其为“大民族主义”也未尝不可*从梁启超创造“中华民族”概念可以看出,他已经意识到种族主义在分析民族时的局限。杜赞奇认为:“虽然梁启超曾经反对过革命党人狭窄的种族主义并把后者的‘小民族主义’与他自己的‘大民族主义’相对立,但他也并未能完全避免他所吸收的话语中的种族主义的理论基础。进化论的时间观渗透在其历史中,并尤为清楚地表现在如下论点中:没有线性历史的人民将会很快被挤出历史舞台,因为他们无法形成群体团结对付来犯之敌。此外,梁启超毫不怀疑只有白种人、雅利安人和黄种人(至少是潜在地)才拥有历史。但梁氏并没有断言民族只能是单一种族的政体。”([美]杜赞奇:《从民族国家拯救历史:民族主义话语与中国现代史研究》,王宪明等译,南京:江苏人民出版社,2009年,第35页)。20世纪初中国流行的大汉族主义,与从域外简单接受社会达尔文主义及种族主义是有直接关系的。诚如杜赞奇所言:“世界性的社会达尔文主义与共和革命的反满政治共同制造出了一个纯粹由汉族构成的民族群体的理念。”*[美]杜赞奇:《从民族国家拯救历史:民族主义话语与中国现代史研究》,第35页。而且,由此强化的汉民族主义,同时也激起了少数民族的强烈的自我认同与自觉意识,并在观念上为现代中国的多民族问题埋下隐患。

国民革命实质上可以看成是在西式现代世界史状况下建立民族国家的尝试。这一尝试最终没有成功,究其原因,其一,西式民族国家不能直接引为现代中国民族国家的当然理据;其二,近代中国的世界境遇使其不可能成为独立自主的民族国家;其三,中华民族的独特的地缘地理、文化习俗及政治传统,使其本不可能成为尤其受种族主义支撑的西式民族国家。现代中国必须超越国民革命的逻辑,在更大的历史逻辑及族群包容性中寻求多民族国家的建立与建设。正是在这样的历史境况下,作为内在地超越西方资本主义及其民族国家观、并蕴含着非西方关怀的现代思想,马克思主义成为中国现代多民族国家重构的主体资源。

马克思主义与社会达尔文主义有着本质的区别。尽管包含着阶级及其阶级斗争的思想,但马克思主义有着丰富的关于人类解放的追求、关怀与视野;社会达尔文主义则是典型的欧洲中心主义,且不符合全球时代的人类共同要求,放任社会达尔文主义,其结果必然是帝国主义及其殖民化,无法解决非西方社会的问题。马克思的阶级分析方法特别表达为西方与非西方社会的压迫与反抗关系,实有其世界历史的机缘,也由此改变了世界历史的既定逻辑,正如马克思主义乃是对社会达尔文主义的批判和遏制,并由此改变了西方现代思想的走向,马克思的国民经济学批判实际上也是对民族国家的历史批判,而合于马克思的人类解放及其非西方关怀,历史性地衍生为非西方多民族国家的独立与解放。马克思主义是通过俄国革命而传入中国的。“十月革命”建立了世界上第一个社会主义国家,也是第一个社会主义性质的多民族国家。苏联通过马克思主义及社会主义实现了多民族国家的整合,这成为包括中国在内的社会主义国家的典范。但中国有自己的多民族整合传统,历史地说,中国既不可能像近代欧洲那样区分为各自独立的民族国家体系,也不必像苏联那样不得不通过建立加盟共和国,以缓解马克思主义以及泛斯拉夫主义依然不能缓解的境内民族矛盾。前苏联多民族的集聚实际上还是形式集聚与强力集聚,境内诸民族之间的关系主要是现代以来集聚起来的政治共同体,俄罗斯帝国形成的民族国家,到列宁、斯大林集诸多民族国家的联邦,其稳定性同中国境内诸族群因地域地理、人口流动以及资源关系而长期形成的依赖型的互动关系,是不可同日而语的。现代中国显然通过社会主义进一步巩固和集聚了中华民族多元一体的传统,这一过程是有机的,并且已经成为现代中国诸民族团结的基本资源与传统。前苏联的分崩离析,很大程度上是其在激进的社会主义实践中过度利用、而反过来受制于民族主义的消极后果。在前苏联的政治实践中,族群(ethnic)被直接解释成了国族(nationality),进而不仅造成了“民族”概念的混乱,而且埋下了民族矛盾的种子*马戎:《中华民族史与中华共同文化》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2012年,第111页。。前苏联建立的联邦实际上是“民族国家联盟”,因而联盟的垮台即为民族国家的独立创造了条件;然而,因联盟中诸民族国家的境遇及其传统又各各不同,这又反过来决定了其在新的转型过程中的艰难,苏东剧变之后这一地区持续不断的民族纷争,都是与此直接相关的。与此同时,近代中国的艰难转变,实际上已造成国家民族认同的薄弱与族群间矛盾的不断加剧,靠国民革命援引的西式民族国家已经难以实现现代中国国家民族的重构。在这种情况下,中国共产党虽然也吸收了马克思阶级化的民族理论,但却前所未有地完成了对域内各民族的集聚,并在这一过程中避开了简单模仿苏联式联邦可能造成的麻烦。

现代中国选择社会主义的多民族国家模式,显然也经历了一个过程。一百年前,中国国势渐衰、外强欺凌,且国内各自为政、一盘散沙,当时自由主义的民族国家重构方略也曾颇有市场。事实上,在当时的历史条件下,尽管一些早期中共领导人,也认同自由主义的民族国家构想或联邦共和国的构想,但是,随着对中国传统及现实的深入把握,随着对马克思主义的理论自觉,毛泽东等中共领导人越来越明确地意识到,应以中华民族固有的多民族统一传统为基础,实现中国多民族国家的现代重构;而立足于中国现代民族国家创立的历史实践学习并转化马克思主义,也成为马克思主义中国化的当然理据。当毛泽东在延安时期明确提出马克思主义中国化时,即已经形成了中华统一的多民族国家重构的基本政治构想。中国共产党所采取的“农村包围城市”以及“全民动员”的战略,包括革命道路的地理线路,完成了民族地区及其国民面向激进的现代政治的启蒙与观念转变,因而特别完成了民族地区的现代转变,相比于延续一个多世纪的族群分裂乃至于撕裂,这一贡献难能可贵。实际上,通过确立先进的阶级与人民观念,相对落后的民族地区的少数民族在很大程度上遗忘了所谓民族身份,进而通过政治忠诚显现为国家忠诚;而通过底层民众的觉醒,中国共产党解决了民族地区普通民众对人民共和国的认同问题。在此基础上,新中国确立人民共和国政体而不是联邦共和国政体,使这一构想得以巩固为政治制度。人民共和国对内强调各族人民当家作主、共生共荣,对外主张独立自主,注重与广大非西方世界及发展中国家结盟。新中国成立以后,随着世界形势的新变化,毛泽东适时提出了“三个世界”理论。在“三个世界”框架中,中国被定位为最大的发展中国家,这显然更益于巩固自身统一多民族国家的结构及其稳定团结的局面。现代中国多民族国家重构的实践,创造性地发展和转化了马克思主义国家与民族理论,也发扬了自身的多民族传统,通过广泛深入的社会动员,推进了诸民族面向现代中国的国族认同,形成了民族团结的局面,且使现代中国得以立身于世界民族之林。

改革开放,无疑使现代中国的国族重构进入新的历史时期,面临新的问题。中国改革开放的外部空间,正是新自由主义的全球空间。新自由主义依托于资本、技术、军事以及地缘等优势,强化了其帝国性质,与此同时也带来全球民族国家体系新一波的震荡。在新一轮文明对话及博弈中,西方实际上延续并且加剧了对东方世界的单一民族国家的意识形态。一个正在快速崛起的东方大国,呈现出某种对外部世界相对无害的分化乃至分裂状态,显然是一些西方右翼力量所愿意看到的。西方一些右翼政治势力,显然在利用民族问题,加大对中国的分裂力度,域内外的恐怖主义也呈抬头之势。原因在于,中国在经历三十多年快速发展的同时,也积累了一些矛盾,其中既包括民族本身的矛盾,也有其他如经济、民生、宗教、社会问题在民族问题上的折射与反映。

自由主义不可能成为中国的主导,但客观地说,自由主义对于推进中国的现代转型还是发挥了一些积极的且不可替代的作用,如市场经济、民主法治建设、社会建设等等。况且,自由主义传统本身也在发展,比如,与社会达尔文主义、种族主义及早期资本主义时代的古典自由主义相比,19世纪中叶以后直到今日,自由主义经新自由主义向新古典自由主义转化;而西式民族国家体系格局也在经历不断的变化,不存在确定且固化的民族国家结构(包括领土结构),全球资本主义时代的民族国家更是经历和正在经历深刻的变化。中国并不自外于如此全球格局,因而需要恰当应对,以实现国家与社会的持续进步。

(一)确当理解现代中国作为国家民族(简称“国族”)的建设与认同。世界历史时代,各民族国家的国族重构是一个持续推进和完善的过程,在全球化时代更是如此,作为发展中大国的中国的国族重构,尤其如此。中国的国族重构,必然要求完成从“天下”帝国向面向现代世界民族之林的多民族东方大国的转变;而现代中华民族国家的重构,必然要求实现诸民族面向国族的集聚。现代中国诉诸马克思主义,完成了相对封闭状态的国族认同,并且成为长达半个世纪的“冷战”时代的资源,但是,面向开放世界的国族认同建构,依然是迫切而严峻的任务。这样的任务,必然是有机团结而不是机械团结,因而特别体现为制度建设。至于网络化、跨国资本主义及其种种后民族国家或非民族国家观念对多民族国家重构的冲击,也不容小觑。特别是在公正体制有欠完善的结构中,全球化格局下的民族利益与国家利益,对中国而言总是大是大非的问题。

国族建设是当下中国国家建设的关键任务。国族建设的重心是国家精神*参见拙文《民族国家框架下的国家精神》,《哲学研究》2014年第7期。,其目的是达致国家认同。客观上看,改革开放以来,我们在这方面留有不少欠账,也生发出很多问题。如前所述,新中国较为成功地解决了革命逻辑下的国族集聚,并形成了阶级化的民族理论传统,但这一传统能否并在多大程度上成为改革开放和建设时期的民族理论资源,显然是需要反思的。阶级化的民族理论还是反映了一种矛盾与对立的民族关系,甚至默认了汉民族与少数民族的“不平等关系”,因而在当下不仅无益于解释民族问题,还会不时激化矛盾。总的说来,基于当下社会治理实践,我们认为从社会理论而不是政治哲学层面发挥马克思的阶级分析方法,并吸收现代社会冲突理论等资源,将更有益处(兹不细述)。马克思的阶级分析方法并非一成不变,而是需要不断发展与创新,阶级化的民族理论话语也需要与中华民族传统结合起来,与今日中国国家认同状况结合起来。与此同等重要的是处理好民族自觉与国家认同的关系。由于诸多方面的原因,现代中国存在着国族认同滞后于民族自觉的情形*参见拙文《现代中国的国族认同与民族自觉》,《天津社会科学》2014年第1期。,这在一些区域、领域、职业以及年轻一代那里表现得十分明显。当然,这并非意味着认同国家主义。全球时代的确存在着一定的民族国家式微倾向,但毕竟民族国家仍是全球时代国际政治的基本单元,而中国本质上是秉承和平主义理念的多民族国家,是政治国家,因而必当以恰当方式发挥应有的国家认同与整合功能,基本的国家认同仍然是不言而喻的。

(二)恰当理解中国作为统一多民族国家的基本传统,把握这一传统的创造性转化及其方向。

中华民族多元一体的传统是现代中国多民族国家重构的基础,中国依其常态及可持续的历史逻辑,不可能走单一民族国家之路,而必然是面向多民族国家模式;任何一种主张暴力与强力的政治观念,在中国化的过程中都应当与中国传统所崇尚的和合精神相契合,而中国传统的天下观也要求进行相应层面的转化,包括面向族群多样性的转化。基于民族传统以及现代世界背景,中国的多民族国家模式,也不可能是自由主义的多民族国家模式,而必然是社会主义的团结模式。当然,中国的多民族国家模式拒斥自由主义,但并不意味着拒斥自由、民主、人权、法治等现代文明的基本价值与理念。事实表明,这些价值与理念更应当成为、并且正在成为中国特色社会主义民族国家建设的基本价值与理念。中国社会主义实践直接推进了中国多民族国家的现代重构,并已取得了非凡的成就,成为解决现阶段诸多民族问题、推进民族发展的基础。解决各民族的民生及其发展问题,推进国族的重构与认同,显然是完善和发展中国特色社会主义治理能力的题中应有之义。

现代中国没有选择自由主义并驯服于社会达尔文主义的民族国家道路,而是承继中华统一多民族传统并选择了马克思主义的多民族国家道路。为区别西式民族国家道路,坊间趋向于称中国多民族国家为“文明国家”,这是有一定道理的。但“文明国家”的命名还是失于笼统,且有排斥意味,也缺乏独特的内涵,更像是一种自我定位,看来还需要斟酌。撇开称谓,关键的问题在于如何把握中华民族的多元一体传统及其现代转化。在帕米尔高原这个“世界屋脊”的巨大的“东坡”,这方土地长期以来诸族群形成了交流融合且和而不同的传统与习俗,世界历史进程中中华民族的集聚效应更趋显著,且由现代中国完成了中华民族前所未有的集聚。当下时代,中华民族多元一体传统仍然持续,并逐渐造就中华民族共有精神家园,尽管存在诸多消极因素乃至不确定因素,但大势已定。

(三)改革开放时代的中国多民族国家重构,理应在遏制新自由主义之全球扩张、承担应有人类责任方面产生积极作为与影响。

从种种情势看,当下世界族群自觉的活跃程度正在加剧。现代世界史上,民族主义经历了三波浪潮,先是威斯特华伦合约之后,欧洲先进国家及老牌国家影响下的民族国家重构,后波及美国的国族重构;继之是俾斯麦统一德国,开启欧洲(不包含一部分东欧及南欧)的民族国家格局;再之后西式民族国家向现代帝国的转变,又激起新一轮更大范围的全球民族国家的重构浪潮,以苏联和中国为引导,波及广大第三世界。全球资本主义正在兴起新一轮的民族主义,这一轮民族主义更加复杂,且看起来颇有些失范。一方面是民族问题的泛化或空心化,在经济全球化格局中,族群认同淡出;另一方面,在许多地域及场合,民族自觉又十分较劲,实际上已经与无政府主义及民粹主义混杂。基于族群自觉的多样性诉求看起来已经取得政治正确性,以至于经常令国家治理层束手无策。在某种程度上说,仅仅基于族群自觉而无更多政治理据的国族重构,在很大程度上还是一种过时的族群国家观。世界上形成的现代国家近二百个,族群五千余个。如按照族群国家划分,有五千余个国家,这几乎难以想象。就此而言,不断的分离主义式的族群国家,无疑是对已经形成传统的现代国家结构及其社会群体的撕裂。就新古典自由主义的外部扩张效应看,它实际上仍在持续地将自由主义的单一民族国家观输入非西方国家,这依然是今日中国在全球资本主义时代面临的挑战。

新自由主义的持续推进,是近几十年全球范围内民族宗教矛盾冲突频发、恐怖主义多发的最重要原因,甚至有可能带来世界秩序的新的动荡与灾难。从价值层面而言,中国道路有理由摆脱新自由主义的全球空间,并在克服资本逻辑、实现社会的公平正义方面形成积极作为。中国走的是和平主义的发展道路,因此,对外不称霸,推进世界各民族的共同发展,共襄人类进步、和平与文明事业;对内尊重各民族的差异与多样性,促进各民族共同发展,乃中华多民族国家建设的内在要求。多民族国家的重构绝非国家主义,更不是强国家主义或帝国主义,对此应有清醒的认识。中国道路或中国特色社会主义道路,一定是与中华民族的复兴之路相统一,且必然要求积极呼应人类文明及人类解放的正确方向,而不是与当代人类文明对立起来。

[责任编辑刘京希]

Abstracts

What Kind ofAcademic History Do We Need?

—Centered on the Studies of Ancient Chinese Literature

Zuo Dongling

In the past two decades,China has gained remarkable achievements in the field of academic history; yet there still exist many defects which need systematic theoretical reflection. To contribute works on academic history that really meet the needs of academia, the basic principles of “clarifying the purpose” and “distinguishing the origins” proposed inTheLearningCasesofConfuciansintheMingDynasty(MingruXue’an) should be obeyed, and the basic connotation of clear “purpose,” fair evaluation, and prediction of academic growth points should be held to. Accordingly, such objectives require researchers with high academic accomplishment as well as rich experience in professional fields.

Historical Textual Criticism in Studies of the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties

Sun Zhengjun

Criticism of historical materials is a kind of research paradigm, popular in recent studies of the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties, which mainly regards historical documents as objective records formerly integrated into the consciousness of historians, so the structure, character, and intention for writing of the historical documents are increasingly sought after. Besides benefiting from the further development of traditional handling of historical materials, the rise of such criticism is also driven by the idea of “text” proposed by post-modern historiography. As a trend, the criticism of historical materials has attracted a batch of young scholars, and has produced abundant illuminating results. But there are still some deficiencies which need our reflection and vigilance, such as overmuch speculation, breaking much more than establishing, and excessive skepticism regarding the historical texts.

The Confucian andLiberal Concepts of Human Nature and Politics (Written Conversations)

Xiao Gongqin, Fang Zhaohui, Gao Quanxi, Xie Wenyu

Editor’s Note: In the beginning of May 2015, the Editorial Department ofWenShiZheheld a forum on “Good Nature or Evil: a Dialogue between Confucianism and Liberalism,” and this group of written conversations are based on the talks presented at the forum. Xiao Gongqin criticizes the over-optimistic Confucian presupposition on human nature, which strengthened the thinking of moral constructivists, so that liberal and New Left scholars in today’s China are still inheriting the Utopian tradition of the “moral ideal.” Fang Zhaohui points out that the opinion which regards good human nature as the mainstream of Confucian theory does not accord with the historical facts. Besides, in Western history, most scholars who advocated autocratic monarchy advocated a theory of evil nature, and most scholars who advocate liberal democracy advocate the theory of a good nature. Gao Quanxi considers that, for political affairs, i.e. how to construct a righteous social system, the presupposition of an evil nature will be more helpful in restricting private use of public rights than one of a good nature; furthermore, it is necessary both for Confucianism to step out of the total focus on human nature (especially a good human nature), and for liberalism to be more inclusive of the Chinese tradition. Those are the inevitable routes for Confucianism’s modern transition as well as for liberalism taking deeper root in today’s China. Xie Wenyu raises the distinction between a politics of rights (i.e., Western constitutionalism) and a responsible politics (i.e., Confucian benevolent government), pointing out that the former resorts to the constitution and legal provisions for protecting the fundamental rights of citizens, yet has difficulty controlling consciousness of right regardless of social consequences; the latter emphasizes cultivation of people’s consciousness of responsibility, but does not explicitly stipulate fundamental rights even if they are generally accepted, so rights are inevitably stomped out in the name of responsibility. In the future, Chinese politics must possess a sufficient and balanced consciousness of both responsibility and right.

Confucianism vs. Liberalism:

Distinguishing Theories of Human Nature and the Historical and Cultural Consequences

He Zhonghua

Theories of human nature are essentially prescriptive, not descriptive. As a kind of logical demand, the presupposition of good human nature standardizes human being as the need of transcendent existence. It only tries to grasp what it should be, not how it is. Although the presupposition of evil human nature accords with empirical facts of the majority’s actual behavior preference, it just embodies a kind of descriptive perspective. The revelation of human nature by such an empirical standpoint is internally related with empiristic liberalism defending a strategy of human willfulness. Generally speaking, Confucianism tends to the theory of good human nature, represented by Mencius’ idea. Western empiristic liberalism cannot do without the presupposition of evil human nature, because the empiristic perspective can only discover human beings corporeally. Different presuppositions of human nature cause different historical and cultural consequences. Historically, the theory of a good human nature shaped the cultural tradition of moralism, and the theory of an evil human nature shaped the cultural tradition of “rule of law.”

Introduction to Collation and Annotation ofNewWordsbytheGreenWindow

Huang Xiaoshu

Only two editions ofNewWordsbytheGreenWindow(LüchuangXinhua) can be seen in Mainland China, i.e., the Jiaye Hall edition in Wuxing, and the Dianyi Hall edition in Dehua. Its author, Master Huangdu Fengyue may have lived in the early years of Southern Song Dynasty, and certainly not later than the Yuan Dynasty. He was probably a scribe in ashuhui(a place where scripts of folk arts are written or compiled) of Lin’an City. From the special style of the book’s compilation and related records inConversationswithaDrunkard(ZuiwengTanlu), it can be judged that the book contained important material for the storytellers and scribes to practice or redact novels. About the story’s sources, there are 114 pieces with proper attribution, and 28 pieces whose lost titles can be given references by textual research. The content of the book contemplates social reality, shows behaviors of people from various classes, and a considerable part of it reflects the conditions of a newly arisen stratum and special social customs at that time. The stories in the book had a far-reaching influence on the folk art circles of the time and later periods.

The Domination of New Learning and Eulogistic Rhapsodies in the Northern and Southern Song Dynasties

Liu Pei

Despotism and eulogistic literature are twin brothers, which means autocracy needs ideological safeguards highly consistent with it. The New Learning advocated by Wang Anshi demonstrated a relatively strong character of political despotism. In the Northern and Southern Song Dynasties when the New Learning occupied the dominant position, political despotism further strengthened, and eulogistic literature greatly expanded. Imperial power originated in violence, but the rulers preferred to make people believe that their power was granted by Heaven and possessed decisive legitimacy and uniqueness. Many of the eulogistic rhapsodies at the time served just that aim. Dynastic momentum is the self-knowledge of a country. And the momentum showed in the eulogistic rhapsodies at the time was not only the personal perception of the writer, but also acted as a voice representing the ideology and the shaping of dynastic momentum by imperial power. Some rhapsodies also directly eulogized sage emperors and ideal politics, and actively sought theoretical support for them. The eulogistic rhapsody cannot simply be considered a means by which the literati demonstrated their psychological state of measureless submission to imperial power, it can also construct a false popular will, interpreting political intentions, strengthening ideology, and hereby offering loyalty to imperial power.

Reflection on the Status of Wang Zhong’s Parallel Prose

Lü Shuangwei

In a position between a Confucian anda literatus, Wang Zhong neither gained any appreciation for parallel prose, nor left any critiques on parallel prose during his lifetime. After his death, although his parallel prose gained some recognition, these works were mostly juxtaposed with his ancient prose and poems, or with parallel prose written by Hu Tianyou, Hong Liangji, Yuan Mei, and others, and never held a dominant position. In the reign of Emperor Qianlong, when the sense for and creation of parallel prose were high, Wang’s indifference to parallel prose was just the result of his scattered style in writing. His writings were often four-character but seldom six-character sentences, regularly phrased yet ignoring neat antithesis, and four- and six-character antithesis to every other line were barely used. His language was quite refined, his writings combining parallelism and prose, featuring the deep meaning and elegant style of prose popular in the Eastern Han, Wei, and Jin Dynasties. This kind of prose was not regarded as orthodox for parallel prose, so his writings were rarely selected in collections of parallel prose at that time. From the reigns of Emperors Daoguang and Xianfeng, however, with a deepening trend of combining and integrating parallelism and prose, Wang’s renown in parallel prose gradually increased. However, most works of history of Chinese literature and parallel prose written after 1949 regard Wang’s parallel prose as supreme in all the Qing Dynasty, bestowing on him the dominant position. The reasons for this change deserve our reflection.

A Textual Research of the Status of Despotic Chieftains of Wuchuan Town in theFubingSystem

in the Western Wei and Northern Zhou Dynasties:

With a Discussion of Chen Yinke’s Opinion on theFubingSystem

Xue Haibo

From the time Yuwen Tai became the commander-in-chief of the Guanlong Army, there formed a relationship of commander and subordinate between he and Zhao Gui et. al., the despotic chieftains of Wuchuan Town. The title of so-called “peer” accorded to Yuwen Tai, Zhao, and the others only refers to their relationships as contemporaries in the society of the Six Towns of the Northern Wei Dynasty, and to their achievements since the Six Towns revolt. Zhao Gui et. al. became Pillars of State not because of their peer relationships, nor because Yuwen Tai pursued the old Xianbei system of Eight Ministries, nor because Yuwen was forced into it by Zhao et. al.’s military and political power, but due to his realistic consideration of the need to stabilize the dramatic changes in military ranking caused by the promotion of large numbers of local tyrants and rural commanders in the Guanlong area and elsewhere after the War of Mount Mangshan, and to coordinate the political status of various groups and commanders in the army. As Pillar of State, Zhao Gui and the others did not possess the right to transferfubing(militia garrisons), did not have the capability to provide for large numbers of militia troops, nor could they control the militia garrison by granting the minority Hu surname, let alone form what may be called strong factions in the militia garrison. The rank of peer was just a symbol of their group’s veteran status in the army. Under pressure from Yuwen Hu, the imperial clan of the Northern Zhou replaced most of the Pillar of State group originally comprised of the despotic chieftains of Wuchuan Town, thus forming a militarily decentralized structure in which the Northern Zhou emperor and imperial clan jointly controlled the militia garrison. The effort to centralize military power under imperial authority engendered constant slaughter between the Northern Zhou emperors and the imperial clan over who could master the army, which led in part to Yang Jian establishing the Sui Dynasty instead of the Northern Zhou Dynasty.

A New Discussion of Yang Miaozhen:The State of Research, Basic Deeds, and an Evaluation

Jiang Xidong

In her early years, Yang Miaozhen was aninvincible expert of pear-flower spear martial arts, and after the death of her elder brother Yang Anguo, she became the supreme leader of the Shandong Red Coat Army (i.e., Loyalty Army) equal to her husband Li Quan. Although the stress of circumstances brought her to surrender her army to the Song and Mongolian courts, Yang always kept the “Shandong standard” principle strategically in mind and sought independent development. In her later years, she was the “Special Departmental Clerk at Shandong and Huainan” as well as a female Taoist priest of Quanzhen Taoism. In A.D. 1252, she resigned the Departmental Clerk post, succeeded by her heir Li Tan. Li Tan’s defection to Mongolia and surrender to the Song Court was deeply influenced by Yang and Li Quan. Yang is a peculiar heroine who revolted against national oppression and class exploitation in ancient Shandong, as well as a prominent figure pursuing self-protection and autonomy; yet there still remain serious historical limitations and errors regarding her. The stirring history of Yang Miaozhen, Li Quan and others with their army reflects the great failures of the Jin Dynasty, the Southern Song Court, and the Mongolian government in the thirteenth century, leaving many lessons written in blood for later generations.

The Imperial Republic from the Qing Emperor to the Dasheng (Mahatma) Emperor:

A Study of the “Constitutional Draft Amended by Yuan Shikai”

Li Dongmu, Soto Wataru, Yoshida Tomio

As one of the handwritten documents preserved by Dr. Morohashi Tetsuji, the “Constitutional Draft Amended by Yuan Shikai” is now archived in the Morohashi Tetsuji Memorial Hall in Sanjō City, Niigata Prefecture, Japan, and has not been made public. What kind of material is this draft written before the birth of the “republic”? What is its significance? Is there a final text based upon it? What kind of form, if any, did the codified edition have? As the design of a “republican” state system, what are the similarities and differences between it and contemporaneous constitutional plans currently known? On the birth of the “republic,” Yuan also prepared a scheme for a so-called “imperial republic” substituting a Mahatma Emperor for the Qing Emperor. The structure of this state system with coexistence of the Mahatma Emperor and the Grand President was different from any “constitution” officially released in that period, provided a new conception different from both “constitutional monarchy” and “constitutional republic,” and reflected a level once reached in constitutional design.

The Error in Cultural Comparisons: a Look into Roger Ame’s “Confucian Role Ethics”

Ben K. Hammer

Cultural comparisons have many different methods, but there is a commonality, a common error, prevalent in most models today. Cultural comparisons have an overwhelming tendency to set the East and the West in opposition to each other, and with this as their starting point, create an artificial juxtaposition. The definitions, analyses, and final judgments of cultural comparisons that stem from such a tendency inevitably paint the East and West as polar opposites. Such comparisons do not reflect the reality of either culture and are unfair to both. When looking at this issue historically we find that the erroneous attraction to polarize cultures has existed in academic circles for at least the last century. Looking into the matter even more deeply, psychological research reveals that polarizing“us” and “others” is in fact a natural disposition to humans, making this problem not just one of academic bias, but of epistemology itself. It is the author's hope that a thorough analysis of this phenomenon will reveal the problems with much work being done in cultural comparison today, with the further hope that they may be recognized and minimized, creating an opportunity for more accurate portrayals of different cultures and their defining characteristics. In particular, we will be using the popular theory of “Confucian Role Ethics” as a case study and typical example of “polarizing” cultural comparison.

Indigenized Marxism and the Modern Reconstruction of a Multi-ethnic China

Zou Shipeng

Marx’s critique of classical liberalism contains criticism of the view of single-national states and nation-states generally. The eastward transmission of Marxism brought radical national independence and liberation movements, including the independence and liberation of modern China. Yet because of China’s unique pattern of one multi-ethnic unity, it could not follow the model of the Soviet Union in the construction of a modern multi-ethnic country. In modern China, both liberalism and conservatism appeal to the nation-state, but indigenized Chinese Marxism consciously criticizes this appeal, continually devoting itself to the modern reconstruction of a multi-ethnic country, an approach continued after 1978, which makes China unlikely to repeat the mistakes of the former Soviet Union. Reconstructing modern China as a multi-ethnic country accords with the historical logic of indigenous Marxism in China, and also carries with it the reasonable consequence of modernizing Chinese tradition.

基金项目:本文系国家社会科学基金重点项目“马克思主义与中国多民族国家精神的重构”(10AZD002)的阶段性成果。

作者简介:邹诗鹏,复旦大学哲学学院、当代国外马克思主义研究中心教授(上海 200433)。

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