APP下载

语用预设在《红字》语篇建构中的功能

2015-03-21

文教资料 2015年15期
关键词:红字主人翁牧师

潘 琪

(徐州医学院 公共教育学院 外语教研室,江苏 徐州 221004)

一、引言

预设(presupposition)这一概念是一百多年前德国哲学家弗雷格(Gottlob Frege)提出来的,又译为“前设”、“先设”或“前提”。指的是发话者在说出某个特定句子时的先决条件,即说话者为保证句子或语段(utterance)的适应性而必须满足的前提。人们最初把预设作为语义研究,称为“语义预设”(semantic presupposition)。随着研究的深入,语言学家们发现预设不仅是个语义概念,而且是个语用概念,某些词或句式随着语境的变化可能随之变化。从这个意义上讲,就叫语用预设(pragmatic presupposition,简称PP)。 它是基南(Edward Keenan)于1971年在“自然语言的两种预设”中提出的。他认为预设可以被看做话语跟其使用语境之间的关系,把语用预设定义为“说出一句话就语用预设其语境是合适的”(Keenan,1971:49)。 那么,语境是什么? 根据莱文森(Levinson,1983:212),语境是“参与者互相知道,或者至少公认无异议的一个命题集”。在文学作品中,作者常常根据具体的语境,运用预设揭示写作背景,突出主人翁深层心理和性格特点,以塑造典型人物形象,同时运用预设冲突产生幽默或荒诞戏剧性效果。

自上个世纪六、七十年代以来,预设一直是语言学家和学者们的热议之一。国内对预设和语篇的研究也不少,如姜旭的“语用预设在文学语篇中的作用”、王守元的“预设与文学语篇建构”,等等。本文拟从语用预设分析《红字》的语篇建构,试图为文学欣赏提供一点有价值的参考。

二、《红字》中语用预设的语篇视角

《红字》(THE SCARLET LETTER)是美国十九世纪最有影响力的浪漫主义小说家纳撒尼尔·霍桑的长篇小说。它讲述了17世纪在波士顿一个犯了通奸罪的女人海斯特·普林和女儿珍珠与情夫亚瑟·迪梅斯代尔及前夫罗杰·齐林沃思的爱恨情仇故事。小说通过预设冲突,把主人翁的“孤独”、“痛苦”、“罪”展现得淋漓尽致。例如:

(1)On the breast of her gown, in fine red cloth,surrounded with elaborate embroidery and fantastic flourishes of goldthread, appeared the letter A.It was so artistically done, and with so much fertility and gorgeous luxuriance of fancy,that it had all the effect of a last and fitting decoration to the apparel which she wore...(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)

The young womanwastall,with a figure of perfect elegance on a large scale, she had dark and abundant hair, so glossy that it threw off the sunshine with a gleam,and a face which,besides being beautiful from regularity of feature and richness of complexion,had the impressiveness belonging to a marked brow and deepblackeyes.Shewaslady-like, too.(NathanielHawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)

这是《红字》第二章主人翁海斯特走出牢门的一段陈述。这段话描写了一位着装讲究、举止典雅的女士竟是走上刑场的罪人,并强调了胸前佩戴精心缝制的装饰A形标记。这里的A代表Adultery,“通奸”的意思。作者在开篇预设了小说的虚拟世界背景是北美清教殖民统治,在这种语境下A就预设罪恶,犯了清戒律,与海斯特形象不相称。语篇运用预设冲突,营造了主人翁深层心理的痛苦。

法国语言学Durot(1972:94)早已指出,预设的基本功能就是为语篇的进一步发展建立一个框架。正如Vennemann(1975:315)所说的那样,语篇中的预设限定语篇的后续语句范围。《红字》在一开篇即为后面的语篇建立了一个框架,并运用预设把一些不便明言或没必要的信息巧妙地蕴藏在话语中。以预设的形式表现出来,起到事半功倍的作用,更突出作品的戏剧性。

三、语用预设在《红字》语篇中的功能

(一)语用预设在《红字》中的组织功能

语用预设的语篇组织功能既是语篇信息流的要求,又是交际双方互动过程的结果。从本质上讲,无论是会话语篇还是书面语篇都是一个动态的互动过程(Coulthard,1977,1994;Widdowson,1984)。 在语篇的生成过程中,发话者为保证语篇信息流的畅通,需要根据自己对受话者的知识状态所做出的假设及受话者可能做出的反映合理地编排信息。在文学作品中,发话者可以理解为陈述者或创作者,受话者常常是读者或参与者。例如:

(2)A throng of bearded men, in sad-colored garments,and gray, steeple-crowned hats, intermixed with women, some wearing hoods and others bareheaded, was assembled in front ofawoodenedifice,thedoorofwhichwasheavilytimberedwith oak, and studded with iron spikes.(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)

(3)The grass-plot before the jail, in Prison Lane, on a certain summer morning, not less than two centuries ago, was occupied by a pretty large number of the inhabitants of Boston,all with their eyes intently fastened on the iron-clamped oaken door.Amongst any other population,or at a later period in the history of New England,the grim rigidity that petrified the bearded physiognomies of these good people would have augured some awful business in hand.(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)

这两段节选小说第一章和第二章,作者以陈述者的视角讲述了故事发生的背景和地点。例(2)中提到“the door of which was heavily timbered with oak,and studded with iron spikes”,以隐蔽的信息处理为预设信息,和例(3)中“all with their eyes intently fastened on the iron-clamped oaken door.”形成互动,这样在语篇发展过程中信息流畅自然。

在语篇的组织过程中,可以进入语篇信息流的事实非常多,但作者不可能也没有必要将所有信息都以陈述的方式编排到信息流中,那样语篇就会变得繁冗不堪,不能引人入胜。经济性是语篇组织的重要原则之一。在文学作品创作中,作者在话语信息组织上为了突出主要信息,一般将次要信息以语用预设的形式内嵌于话语之中,作为对主要信息的铺垫和衬托。霍桑在《红字》的语篇组织建构上也是如此。例如:

(4)From this intense consciousness of being the object of severe and universal observation,the wearer of the scarlet letter was at length relieved, by discerning, on the outskirts of the crowd,a figure which irresistibly took possession of her thought s.An Indian, in his native garb, was standing there; but the red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English settlements,that one of them would have attracted any notice from Hester Prynne, at such a time; much less would he have excluded all other objects and ideas from her mind.By the Indian’s side, and evidently sustaining a companionship with him, stood a while man,clad in a strange disarray of civilized and savage costume.(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)

(5)“Speak,woman!”saidanothervoice,coldlyandsternly,proceeding from the crowd about the scaffold.“Speak;and give your child a father!”

“Iwill not speak!”answered Hester, turning pale as death,but responding to this voice,which she too surely recognized.“And my child must seek a heavenly Father;she shall never know an earthly one!”(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)

这段节选《红字》第三章,主人翁海斯特在市场接受公众和法官的审判。例(4)中再次出现“the scarlet letter”,这一信息和开篇就预设的Letter A相互对应,为语篇的进一步发展埋下预设。这段主要信息是描述主人翁海斯特被审讯的场景及观众对此事的反映,作者在突出这个主要信息的同时,把次要信息另一个人物也嵌入话语之中。例(5)中这个人再次出现,对审讯做出回应,“Speak,woman!”said another voice, coldly and sternly, proceeding from the crowd about the scaffold.“Speak; and give your child a father!”这个声音正是主人翁海斯特熟悉又惧怕的声音。霍桑以预设的形式把小说的另一个重要人物自然而然引入,这个人物正是海斯特的前夫罗杰·奇林沃思。

(二)语用预设在《红字》中的荒诞和戏剧化功能

预设是发话者对交际语境中没有异议或不容置疑的信息的认同和设定,即假定该信息为交际参与者所共有并且可以为对方所理解。在交际过程中,发话者根据自己的假设,将双方认同的信息以隐含的方式表述为预设命题,并以此作为信息传递的背景知识或前提。从这个意义上讲,预设表达的一般是语篇世界中已经确立的“事实”或合乎情理的事态。换言之,语用预设是文学语篇中表征现实世界和虚拟世界的衔接。读者解读语篇时通过语篇中的预设假设虚拟世界的存在,并把自己置于虚拟世界中,从而对语篇做出理解(Short 1996:232)。正是因为预设信息与语篇虚拟世界中的一般信息或常理发生矛盾,才会产生预设冲突。在《红字》中,霍桑正是运用预设冲突制造荒诞的戏剧性效果。例如:

(6)“You speak in riddles, learned Sir, ”said the pale minister,glancing aside out of the window.

“Then, to speak more plainly, ”continued the physician,“and I crave pardon, Sir, --should it seem to require pardon,--for this needful plainness of my speech.Let me ask,--as your friend, --as one having charge, under Providence, of your life and physical well-being, --hath all the operation of this disorder been fairly laid open and recounted to me?”

“How can you question it?”asked the minister.“Surely, it were child’s play, to call in a physician, and then hide the sore! ”(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)

(7)“ThenIneedasknofurther, ”saidtheclergyman, somewhat hastily rising from his chair.“You deal not, I take it, in medicine for the soul!”

“Would you, therefore, that your physician heal the bodily evil?How may this be,unless you first lay open to him the would or trouble in your soul?”

“...No!—not to thee!—not to an earthly physician!”

“It is as well to have made this step,”said Roger Chill inggworth to himself,looking after the minister with a grave smile.“There is nothing lost.We shall be friends again anon...”(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)

这两段是主人翁海斯特的情夫亚瑟·迪梅斯代尔及前夫罗杰·齐林沃思之间的对话。背景是牧师Dimmesdale因为内心负疚感和罪恶导致他精神崩溃,这种内心挣扎使他的身体每况愈下。而Chillingworth察觉了年轻的牧师Dimmesdale和前妻的隐情,于是以医生名义故意和牧师接近,不断折磨牧师的灵魂。从以上对话中,我们可以清楚地看到两个人物的戏剧性冲突所在。Chillingworth每个看似善意的问候和关心,实际都是对Dimmesdale心灵的折磨。我们从Chillingworth的问题中可以推断他当时的预设期待:“Would you,therefore,that your physician heal the bodily evil?How may this be,unless you first lay open to him the would or trouble in your soul?”Chillingworth的预设回答是“Yes, I would tell you the truth...”但事实相反,牧师的回答是“...No!—not to thee!—not to an earthly physician.”也就是说,Chillingworth的预设失败,这两个矛盾人物戏剧性的冲突就产生了。这正揭示了Chillingworth的内心阴险、刻薄和扭曲的性格,以及Dimmesdale的懦弱和内心极度愧疚。

Stalnaker认为,如果一个命题是说话人在特定语境中的语用预设,则这个命题是说话人本身设想和相信的。创作者常常运用预设主观性的特点制造高潮,对故事情节的发展起到推动作用。例如:

(8)He turned towards the scaffold, and stretched forth his arms.

“Hester, ”said he, “come hither!Come, my little Pear”...

“Madman, hold!What is your purpose?”whispered he.“Wave back that woman!Cast off this child!All shall be well!Do not blacken your fame,and perish in dishonor!I can yet save you!Would you bring infamy on your sacred profession?”

“Ha, tempter!Methinks thou art too late! ”answered the minister, encountering his eye, fearfully, but firmly.“Thy power is not what it was!With God’s help, I shall escape thee now! ”

这段对话发生的背景是在安息日德高望重的牧师Dimmesdale将在市场对公众布教,这个市场也是7年前对他的情人Hester进行审判和受辱的地方。创作者这种主观性预设增强了作品荒诞性。正在庆祝当日,布教结束后,牧师Dimmesdale做出了出乎意料的决定—他把他心中的红字公布于众。这一举动不仅震撼了围观的人们,更让医生Chillingworth始料不及。牧师Dimmesdale把他心中耻辱的烙印和盘托出,这是牧师摆脱阴险医生控制的唯一方法,作者匠心独运的预设冲突把故事情节发展推向高潮。

四、结语

《红字》这部作品已经有很多学者从文学欣赏或评论角度进行过分析和研究。本文试图从语用预设角度分析这部传世巨作。通过以上分析,我们了解到语用预设在《红字》的语篇建构中具有组织作用,使整个语篇信息流畅、前后衔接;语用预设在语篇建构中产生荒诞的戏剧性效果,通过预设主观性冲突,凸显高潮,使作品显得神工意匠。总之,语用预设的研究是语用学的重要课题之一,其研究成果不仅会对语用学领域产生影响,还会对文学作品的创作和赏析产生推动作用。

[1]Coulthard, M.An Introduction to Discourse Analysis[M].London; Longman,1977.

[2]Ducrot, O.Dire et ne pas dire[M].Paris:Hermann,1972.

[3]Keenan, E.E.Two Kinds of Presupposition in Natural Language.In Fillmore and Langendoen(eds.),1971:45-54.

[4]Levinson Stephen C.Pragmatics.Cambridge University Press,1883.

[5]Short M.H.Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose.London:Longman,1996:122-134.

[6]Vennemann T.Topic, sentence accent, and ellipsis: a proposal for their formal treatment.

[7]Widdowson, H.G.Explorations in Applied Linguistics(2)[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,1984.

[8]胡萍.试论语用预设及其文学功能[J].湖南经济管理干部学院学报,2001(2).

[9]姜望琪.当代语用学[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2003.

[10]姜旭.语用预设在文学语篇中作用[J].东华大学学报(社会科学版),2006(1).

[11]倪海燕,唐德银.语用预设的语篇功能体现[J].求索,2005(11).

[12]王守元,苗兴伟.预设的语用意义在文学分析中的价值.外语与外语教学,2003(3):1-3.

[13]朱永生,苗兴伟.语用预设的语篇功能.外国语,2000(3)25-30.

猜你喜欢

红字主人翁牧师
绿色低碳节能先行 你我都是主人翁
谁是真牧师
小区治理如何跳出“泥淖”——“主人翁”意识是必备药物
Expectation for The Future of Puritanism
浅析电影红字和小说红字的区别
坚持“四个融入” 引领青工当好企业主人翁
阅读理解Ⅰ
牧师与会友
智力跷跷板
劝捐