He Yi,Qin Menghao

(School of Marxism Sichuan Normal University,Chengdu Sichuan 610068)

Abstract:With the development of many years,Kunlun culture has been the convergence of both material and spiritual civilisation in human society.Kunlun culture is very prominent throughout the traditional Chinese culture,for it enjoys a long history and is closely related to the traditional Chinese culture.As the origin,soul and form of the traditional Chinese culture,Kunlun culture plays a vital role in enhancing the identity and cohesiveness of the Chinese nation,improving China’s cultural soft power and national confidence and boosting the development of “Silk Road Economic Belt”.

Key words:Kunlun culture;Kunlun mythology;Chinese civilisation;correlation

As every culture has its own carrier,Kunlun Mountains does most of the job for Kunlun culture.Known as the ancestor of all mountains as well as dragon vein,Kunlun Mountains enjoys a prominent position in the cultural field.It also has a lofty position in Chinese mythology as many myths passed down from the ancient time related to Kunlun Mountains and thus Kunlun Mountains is thought to be the cradle land of the descendants of “Yan Di and Huangdi Emperors”.Although Kunlun〔1〕Mountains does not simply equal Kunlun mythology or Kunlun culture,it nourished a culture that is the most original and the representative of the Chinese culture thanks to its special location.The poem Gidimaga pointed out that Kunlun Mountains is not famous for its altitude but for its cultural symbol and cultural peak for the Chinese people.As a monument of the oriental spiritual culture,Kunlun Mountains is unsurpassable1.Based on many years’ research,Kunlun culture was firstly brought forward as a term by the renowned Taiwan scholar Du Erwei,who elaborated in his book on this term as how a philosophy derived from Kunlun mythology had become Kunlun culture.Then,what is Kunlun mythology?Zhao Zongfu,vice president of Chinese Folklore Society,suggests that Kunlun mythology is one that takes universe centre worshiping as its belief and Kunlun Mountains as the cultural geographical indication,with Kunlun Mountains and legends of its related mythical characters being the main content.It also reflects the civilized world and the ethics of order in the early imagination of the Chinese nation.Being one of the world’s two major mythologies,Kunlun mythology enjoys equal popularity with Greek mythology.In terms of time,Kunlun mythology is much older than ancient Greek mythology since Kunlun mythology is historically consistent.It is a history record with the largest time span in the world,from when the legendary ancient gods appeared to until characters literally came into being.In terms of form,Kunlun mythology basically retains its original features.Compared with ancient Greek mythology,few traces of literarisation by posterity are seen in Kunlun mythology and therefore it preserves the valuable materials of prehistoric humans to the maximum.In terms of system,the ancient Greek mythology formed the current system after several hundred years of processing and polishing,during which distortion was somehow unavoidable.However,Kunlun mythology does not need any processing because it is a logical system itself that is centred on “the myth of heaven”.〔2〕“Xiwangmu (or western queen of heaven)” and “Huangdi Emperor” are thought to be the most typical mythical figure,from which numerous myths and legends were derived,such as the myths of “Kunlun Mountains”,“Kunlun Wasteland” and “Kunlun Hill”,as well as gods living in Kunlun Mountains,such as “Chang’e”,“God Beasts” and “Houyi”.

Wu Sijing,Professor of the College of Literature in Capital Normal University,believes that the emergence and evolution of Kunlun culture synchronised with the development of the Chinese nation,which has a history of 3.6 million years.Kunlun mythology is rich in content and profound in spirit as it records the important course of human beings from birth to development.That also accounts for the prominent position of Kunlun culture in the Chinese culture and even in the world culture.Therefore,it is believed by the author that the labour work produced by generations of Kunlun Mountainers blossomed into Kunlun culture which has typical regional features after years of development,evolution and improvement.Kunlun culture is uniquely prominent in the history of Chinese people culture,and it has been imposing a great impact on the development of Chinese civilisation since it is the origin,soul and form of Chinese civilisation.

Ⅰ.The origin

A national culture often originates from a “myth”.Marx thinks that the “childhood” of mankind is the mainly when a myth appeared.During that period,human civilization the curtain,and human culture dawned and started to enter the initial stage.Ancient civilisation and primitive natural religion are thought to be the main sources of Kunlun mythology.In terms of time of birth,Kunlun mythology preceded both Taoism and Buddhism.With Kunlun mythology as the core,a conclusion can be drawn for Kunlun culture,whether from the geographical location or the legendary culture itself:Kunlun Mountains in Kunlun mythology is the birthplace of and ancestral home to the Chinese nation and thus is one of the important origins of Chinese civilization.

1.Tracing the origin of Chinese civilisation from the geographical location of Kunlun Mountain

We can never talk about Kunlun culture without mentioning the geographical location of Kunlun Mountains.The Kunlun Mountains at that time was not the Kunlun Mountains in the mythology.The recurring legend of the river exiting Kunlun is understood as that the source of Kunlun Mountains is in the original area of the Yellow River which has also been a consensus of scholars since ancient times.Yi Shunding,a modern patriotism poet,wrote in his poem:The nine songs of the Yellow River were from Kunlun,and thousands of rivers are swallowed there.The Yellow River is the mother river of the Chinese nation,and the source of the Yellow River is in the Kunlun Mountains.It can also be seen from this poem that Chinese civilization originated in Kunlun.Throughout China’s current myths and legends we have in hand,the northeast corner of Kunlun Mountain is the birthplace of the Yellow River in mythological culture.The Yellow River began here,and then bypassed Jishi Mountain,rushing eastward with countless streams gathered into the river,and finally flew into the Bohai Sea.And water is considered to be the symbol of the origin of human civilization.The Huaxia civilization was first nurtured in the Yellow River Basin.The earliest bronze ware,ancient city site and characters appeared there,which is why the Yellow River Basin is thought to be the most prime part of Chinese civilisation.Also,many leaders of ancient times were born there.For example,Yao,Shun,Yu and Huangdi Emperor all lived in the Yellow River Basin.Zhang Qinghua,a professor in college of literature in Beijing Normal University,suggests that Kunlun Mountains becomes the origin both geographically and culturally due to the fact that it is known as the ancestor of all mountains and source of all rivers and that it has nurtured Kunlun culture.Thus,Kunlun Mountains is spiritually symbolic to Chinese nation.In terms of the nation and the national culture,the extensive and profound Kunlun culture not only offers an important cultural foundation for the Chinese nation to take pride in the creation culture and stand firm in the nations of the world,but also represents as the crystallization of the wisdom of Chinese ancestors.〔3〕In a word,renowned as the ancestor of all mountains and the root of He Yue since ancient times,Kunlun enjoys ancient myths,legends and is also one of the cradles of Chinese civilizations.

2.Narrating the origin of Chinese civilization with the Kunlun culture itself

Kunlun mythology,a key part of the long standing Chinese classical mythology,has been influencing the development of Chinese civilization for many years.And Kunlun,like an immortal myth,symbolizes the national spirit.The content-rich and multi-field Kunlun myth is composed of various mythological systems and many of which have been handed down till today.For instance:Pangu created the world with his own life,thus making everything in shape.Nüwa and Xiwangmu created human beings.Yandi and Huangdi fought for the unity of the Chinese nation and created numerous miracles.These mythological characters are closely related to the emergence and development of Chinese civilization.

The historian in Qing Dynasty,Ma Su quoted from Wu Yun Li Nian Ji:“Pangu,the human ancestor,has his body transformed on the verge of death — his breath became the wind and clouds in the sky;his voice,the thunderbolt;his left eye,the sun;his right eye,the moon;his four limbs and five body constituents,the four directions and five mountains;his blood turned into rivers,veins into mountains and roads,muscles into fields,hair and beard into stars;skin and fur into plants,teeth and bones into metallic minerals and stones,semen and marrow into pearls and jewels,the sweat into rains,and even the small bugs on his body,in virtue of winds,into the common people” in his work,Yi Shi.This fully demonstrated that people regarded Pangu of the Kunlun myth as the creator of all things.

In Shan Hai Jing,the site of Kunlun is called “the auxiliary capital of the emperor”,and Huangdi is one of the major gods of the Kunlun Mountain.Gu Jiegang,a famous Chinese historian and folklore expert,has conducted in-depth investigations into the nationalities in the mid-west of China.According to him,Yandi and Huangdi were the ancestors of Qiang people and then the Huaxia nationality.The Qiang people,represented by Yan Di,have been living along the Qilian Mountains,mainly in areas like Qinghai-tibet,Gansu,Shanxi and Sichuan.Later,these ethnic groups were mainstreamed into the Yanhuang tribe,and jointly participated in their tribe activities,thus the Huaxia culture created.Huangdi was honored as the “ancestor of humanity” of Huaxia,leading the tribes to seek development in ancient times and creating countless brilliances.As Mao Zedong wrote in To the Tomb of Huangdi,“our great earliest ancestor,you created the Chinese nation.Your descendants are thriving,the mountains,lofty,and the rivers,mighty.Your wisdom and intelligence bless the motherland.Your great undertakings,make the Chinese people proud in the East.” Huangdi first established the Chinese nation,thus making the Chinese nation stand firm in the east.During the reign of Huangdi,the Huaxia civilization developed rapidly,especially in silkworm breeding,temperament,medicine and character,demonstrating that the great Huangdi Era was a link between the past and the future as well as a cradle of Chinese civilization.

Wen Yiduo carried out a thorough study on the cultural development of human beings.In his book The Testual Study of Fuxi,with the foreign and domestic theory of cultural anthropology,knowledge about archaeology,and the methods of traditional phonology and textology,he fully illustrated the evolutionary process of Kunlun mythology particularly that about Nüwa and Fuxi,discussed the origin,development and evolution of the two mythical characters,and analyzed the origin between the creator,dragon and snake to have a better understanding of the Kunlun mythology.

Ⅱ.The Kunlun culture is the soul of Chinese civilization

Marx pointed out in his research that in the barbarous age,human beings also possess some advanced attributes,such as dignity,emotion,courage,eloquence,which would become a quality,however,accompanied by cruelty,craze and hardship.The philosophies,world views and values of the Chinese nation formed in the childhood of human society were embodied in Kunlun myth and its culture has exerted profound influences on the development of Chinese civilization.It can be said,to some extent,that the Kunlun myth is the essence and soul of Chinese civilization.

1.The philosophy of “unity of heaven and man”

The Chinese civilization worships “the Way of Nature” that all things in the world should adhere to and this coincides with the profound philosophical thoughts in Kunlun culture which exactly emphasizes on the harmonious coexistence between human and nature.In Kunlun myth,by paying respect to god,showing filial obedience to parents,doing good deeds,being benevolent,loyal,honest,people gain peace,talent,fortune,blessing,divine aid,support,sublimation,transform from the realm of necessity to the nature,and enjoy ease,freedom,happiness,and joy.The core of Kunlun culture lies in the philosophical thought of “the unity of heaven and man” which also stands as the root for the five-thousand-year Chinese philosophy and the key for Chinese culture.And this philosophy,first appeared in the Yin Fu Jing of Huangdi,can be interpreted as “observing and abiding by the way of nature”.Both Confucianism and Taoism have contributed to the development of this philosophy.Confucius wrote in the Book of changes:“one could know the mystery of yin and yang by having an insight into the astronomical phenomena and geomantic omen.” In Tao Te Ching,Lao Zi said:“there are only benefits but no harms in the laws of nature,alms but no rivalry in the laws of saints”.These are the interpretations of Confucianism and Taoism on the philosophy of “unity of heaven and man”.

2.The cultural spirit of “harmony without uniformity”

The Chinese civilization,unlike other civilizations,has always paid attention to all races but not just racial features like religious beliefs,languages and physical differences.The inclusive Kunlun culture involves multiple contents,which is completely in line with the spirit of “harmony without uniformity” of Chinese culture and also this diverse culture combines various other cultures,thus involving historical and contemporary culture,as well as folk and elite culture.Qinghai is a multi-ethnic area where Kunlun culture has been taking a dominant position.This is the place for different cultures to meet,integrate and melt with each other,thus manifesting the characteristics of multi-ethnic and multi-cultural.According to historical records,in early times,Kunlun culture and western culture were highly integrated with each other,and substantial descriptions about silk roads,political intermarriages and Kunlun culture also could be traced in historical books and ancient poems.Li He,a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty,vividly presented the ancient silk road,namely the Qinghai Road — “the moon hanged high in the sky,and sheds moonlights on the endless path of Qinghai Road.” “After Princess Wencheng’s entry to Tibet,the customs of Tubo were greatly influenced by the Hans” written by Chen Tao,a poet in Tang dynasty also reflected national integration.

3.The spirit of staunch fighting

A brilliant excerpt from Preface to A Critique of Political Economy of Marx states:“any myth is to conquer,control and visualize the natural forces with imagination itself and its aid”,is “nature and society themselves processed with involuntary art form through the illusion of people.”〔4〕Just as Marx said,myth,full of imaginations and fantasies,reflected the longing of primitive people for natural phenomena.They wished to explain natural phenomena with mythological methods,and at the same time transform the nature with their own imagination and the created mythologies.In ancient times,people were unable to do so with their superficial and scanty scientific knowledge,but they hoped to change the harsh living environment with the aid of natural forces.In this way,various myths were created,which fully demonstrated people’s wish to control the universe on their own.And this wish could also be seen in Kunlun myths like Nüwa Mends the Sky,Jingwei Fills up the Sea,Kuafu Chases the Sun.Additionally,the spirits of indomitable fighting,forging ahead,being selfless,fearless and dedicated in Kunlun myth embodied the feature of “the man of honor will strive constantly for self-improvement” of the Chinese nation.

Ⅲ.Kunlun culture is the form of the Chinese civilization

Being an important source of Chinese civilization,Kunlun culture has been profoundly influencing the development of Chinese civilization on various aspects such as religious beliefs,folk customs,literatures,arts and so on.It can be said that Kunlun culture is a manifestation of Chinese civilization.

1.Nature worship

According to the Kunlun myth,in ancient civilization when talking about the image of god,people usually connect it to nature worship.For ancient people,in fact,these nature worships exactly symbolize the gods.With time passing by,nature worship with divinity has become people’s beliefs and turned to be one of the primitive religious forms in China.

In the Kunlun myth,people mainly admired the Empyrean,Xiwangmu,Xuanlong and Huangdi who are selfless,fearless,optimistic,and never fussy about personal gains and losses,cringing or overcautious whenever fighting against the nature,demons,or saving human beings.No one is negative,pessimistic or gives up halfway in Kunlun culture;instead they guide people to be positive and upward.Yinglong in the Kunlun myth,one of the prototypes of rain god,offers a strong proof for this.According to Shan Hai Jing,a war breaks out between tribes in the Yellow River Basin,led by the Yellow Emperor,and tribes in the Yangtze River Basin,headed by Chi You.Yinglong,under the leadership of Huangdi,is adept at storing water,thus achieving notable merits.And he still keeps positive despite of the damage caused by the war that forces him to live in the mountains of south China rather than fly back to the heaven.Yinglong was regarded as the rain god of the Huangdi Era and one of the water management heroes.The Sun God,Xihe and the Moon God,Chang xi(Chang ’e) in Kunlun mythology offers another strong proof.It is recorded in Shan Hai Jing:“between the East Sea and Gan Shui located the Xihe Kingdom,the home of Xihe.She had ten babies with Emperor Jun and often bathed in Gan Yuan with her children” and “The wife of Emperor Jun,Changxi gives birth to twelve moons,she often bathed with her babies”.These are the earliest records of the sun and moon myths,reflecting in ancient times,people’s worship of the sun and moon coming from their worship for the nature.

2.Religious belief

Taoism,the core of Chinese civilization,has been born in the origin of Chinese civilization and the Chinese nation,which has extensively and profoundly influenced the development of Chinese civilization.Throughout its development,its essence lies in the belief of gods.Taoism worships many gods like Fuxi,Nüwa and Huangdi in Kunlun mythology.The prototype of Xiwangmu is the goddess of Kunlun Mountain,in the Late Eastern Han Dynasty who was enshrined by the early Taoism.According to Zhen Zhong Shu by Ge Hong of Eastern Jin:“ in the early times,without the sun and the moon,the world has not yet taken into shape just like a gluten egg in which the creator,Pangu wanders.”〔5〕This Taoist scholar considered the world creator,Pangu,as the supreme Yuan Shi God of Taoism.And the Taoist ancestor can be traced back to the ancient times,the Chinese nation’s ancestor — Huangdi.The main thoughts of Taoism were taken into shape in The Book of Changes by Fuxi,Zhougong and Confucius.Fuxi created eight diagrams,King Wen created sixty-four diagrams,and Confucius wrote the appendices for The Book of Changes,forming the origin of Chinese culture.It can be seen that Kunlun culture in Taoist culture possesses its own uniqueness and is a manifestation of Chinese civilization.

3.Folk customs

Kunlun myth originally records the social development and humanistic history of China and folk festivals,and customs in the Chinese civilization are inseparable from the Kunlun culture.The second day of the second lunar month,dating back to Fuxi Era,is a traditional folk festival in China.Fuxi “cares much about farming and sericulture”.Every second day of February,“the empress brings food,the emperor ploughs in person.” In Kunlun mythology,Xuanlong is the god of the sky,Empyrean is the supreme commander for Jiutian,Pangulong is the Yuanshitianzun,the Yellow Emperor was honored as the thunder god,and the Yan Emperor is the fire dragon.From the point of view of solar terms,the early lunar February is among “rainfall”,“awakening of insects” and “vernal equinox” when many areas come into rainy seasons.Actually,this is the law of nature,but ancient people gave the credit to the dragon.In addition,dragon holds a high position in the minds of Chinese people which could bring fortune and master the weather.So on the second day of the second month,people hold the Dragon Head Festival not only to celebrate the awakening of the dragon,but also to pray for prosperous country,peaceful society,and good weather.As time goes by,the “Dragon Head Festival” gradually becomes a traditional festival with special significances and a high position among China’s major festivals.Today,inheriting and carrying forward this festive enjoys profound historical and practical significances.In addition to the Dragon Head Festival,the festival to welcome the god of heaven on the first day of the first month,the festival to worship the god of wealth on the second day,the festival to worship ancestors on the third day,and the Lantern Festival to may the Emperor of Heaven longevity all have bearings with Kunlun culture.And these historical traces and cultural roots are essential to the Chinese civilization.

4.Literature and art

Kunlun myth is one of the main constituents of Chinese classical culture.Lu Xun once said,“Chinese Kunlun myth is the cradle of Chinese literature and art”.Myth is about ancient people’s understanding and imagination of natural and cultural phenomena and so is the Kunlun one.In the Late Stone Age,the matriarchal communes maintained by matrilineage developed to their heyday in the Yellow River and Yangtze River Basins and,in Kunlun mythology,there are many female mythological characters,such as Nüwa,Xiwangmu,and Xihe.At that time,women,as the axis of the primitive tribes,took on heavy responsibility of production and were often considered as the creators of mankind and all other things.After stepping into the patriarchal society,male mythological characters emerged in Kunlun myth.The emergence of tribes,united tribes,and the ensuing wars among them laid the foundation for the myth among different tribes.The war between Huangdi and Yandi,between Huangdi and Chiyou were examples for this.At that time,myth reflected social phenomena,people’s understanding of the nature,and their own imagination.Beyond its own cultural value,Kunlun myth also promoted the development of various literary genres in China and provided substantial materials for later writers.Many fables in Zhuang Zi of the Warring States Period were adapted from Kunshan mythology like the incarnations of Beihai God and Wind God in Shan Hai Jing — Peng and Kun in Xiao Yao.In the novels of the Ming Dynasty — The Legend of Deification and Journey to the West,Kunlun is not only an ideal world in comparison with the secular world,but also a place to discipline for the noble gods.

Ⅳ.Carrying forward Kunlun culture and inheriting Chinese civilization.

“Kunlun” is more about a cultural concept than a geographical concept.In Chinese traditional culture,“Kunlun” is a cultural image passed down for thousands of years.Mr.Zhao Zongfu,a famous scholar,said that Kunlun Mountain was the ancestor of all mountains,the head of China’s terrain,the most sacred mountain in Qinghai Plateau and even the whole East.With regard to culture origin,the core of the Kunlun culture is the Kunlun myth.And when talking about regional culture,Kunlun culture is the Qinghai Plateau Culture with the Kunlun Mountains as token,including both historical and contemporary culture,and also the elite culture and cultures of different ethic groups’.This regional cultural integrity with a long history is the source of Chinese civilization,influencing the entire history of Chinese civilization.And as one of the most representative cultures of Huaxia civilization,Kunlun culture has not only exerted tremendous and far-reaching influences on Chinese people at home and abroad,but also played a supreme role in the history of world culture.〔6〕

1.Being conducive to enhancing the sense of identity and cohesiveness of the Chinese nation

Cultural identity can only take into shape on the basis of common history and civilization.The Kunlun culture linked by blood relationship is essential in keeping Chinese civilization,enhancing the sense of identity and cohesiveness of the Chinese nation.For example,the worship for the common ancestors Yandi and Huangdi can unite the nation and create harmony and the far-reaching influences of Kunlun culture help the Chinese civilization maintain its integrity and continuity.Although Kunlun culture belongs to regional culture,it’s still influential.Kunlun culture contains multi-ethnic cultures and with the deepening of ethnic integration,it keeps absorbing the essence and merits of other cultures,thus getting itself enriched.According to relevant data,ethnic minorities related to Kunlun culture account for almost 67% of all nationalities in China.In China,the multi-ethnic country,the diversified Kunlun culture spiritually links the eastern and western regions and various nationalities.And it’s conducive to promoting the sense of identity of the Chinese nation,enhancing national cohesiveness,maintaining national stability,long-term peace and order.

2.Being conducive to enhancing our cultural soft power and national confidence

Still being full of strong vitality,Kunlun culture enjoys a deep cultural root and plays a crucial cultural role in the contemporary era.It advocates harmony,fraternity,dedication,hard work,innovation,enterprising and responsibility,echoing with the Chinese culture.For thousands of years,it has inspired the Chinese people to strive for national rejuvenation,and now it is also advocated as a mainstream ideology.The revival of Chinese culture is inseparable from these traditional resources,and Kunlun culture,the crystallization of national wisdom,will become a great impetus for the revival of Chinese culture,and play an irreplaceable role in improving cultural soft power and national confidence.

3.Being conducive to the development of “the Silk Road Economic Belt”

A rising “world culture,beliefs or intellectual rules,have deeply imprinted on the cultures of countless nations and groups” and,as a result,at least “in every society,some cultures are integrating into the world culture,” Sowell points out.〔7〕Zhao Zongfu has studied the development of Kunlun culture thoroughly.He believes that this culture has exerted far-reaching influences both at home and abroad,including on the culture of Chinese nation and the culture of countries in Southeast Asia.As China goes out,Kunlun culture will become more and more influential.And the broad and profound Kunlun culture with a long history embodies the characteristics of inclusiveness,creativity and openness.It is the common spiritual home of the Chinese nation since ancient times,and also a wonderful treasure for the world’s traditional culture which is still extremely important in today’s foreign exchanges.The Silk Road Channel serves as a bridge between the Chinese nation and the people of Asia and Europe to communicate with each other,enabling East and West cultures,civilizations,technologies and commerces to exchange with each other and ultimately achieving common development.Kunlun culture is of great significance to evoke the common historical and cultural memory of the people from all countries along the Silk Road Economic Belt and to build a people-to-people Asian-European community of common destiny.

As one of the most representative cultures of Chinese civilization,Kunlun culture is an important cultural phenomenon in Chinese traditional culture.As a cultural concept,Kunlun fully shows the harmony between man and nature,which has not only exerted great and far-reaching influences on the Chinese people at home and abroad,but also played a crucial role in the history of world culture.And in its inheritance and development,Kunlun culture has constantly absorbed and influenced various cultures,hands down the extensive Chinese civilization,and also possess its unique value in contemporary times.