Qu Jingyi

(School of Humanities Nanyang Technological University,Singapore)

Ⅰ.Escape and escapism

Literature has long been the abode of escapism for mankind.Such is evident in Sir Isaiah Berlin’s “retreat to an inner citadel”:

I wish to be master of my kingdom,but my frontiers are long and insecure,therefore I contract them in order to reduce or eliminate the vulnerable area.I begin by desiring happiness,or power,or knowledge,or the attainment of some specific object.But I cannot command them … therefore decide to strive for nothing that I cannot be sure to obtain.I determine myself not to desire what is unattainable.The tyrant threatens me with the destruction of my property,with imprisonment,with the exile or death of those I love.But if I no longer feel attached to property,no longer care whether or not I am in prison,if I have killed within myself my natural affections,then he cannot bend me to his will … It is as if I had performed a strategic retreat into an inner citadel — my reason,my soul,my “noumenal” self - which,do what they may,neither external blind force,nor human malice,can touch.I have withdrawn into myself;there,and there alone,I am secure.〔1〕

Berlin’s depiction of “The retreat to the inner citadel” is essentially a form of Escape.Such an escape is necessary in the face of “the tyrant”,against which the protagonist as “I” is helpless and in complete distress,troubled by the adversities in life.Berlin’s depiction has undoubtedly summarized the universal experience shared by all men,with the innate tendency to escape in the face of adversity,helplessness and distress.One destination that Man may escape to would be the literary world.

Robert B.Heilman proposed a definition for Escape in his article,“Escape and Escapism:Varieties of Literary Experience” as follows:“Escape has long meant a departure from tangible sources of distress and disaster:accidents,threats … premature death in various forms,enemies of whatever kind were given to besetting us;jails,castles … floods” and this includes “physical flight from oppressors,sadists in power,and official murderers …”.〔2〕Based on Heilman’s definition,factors causing Man’s escape can generally be classified into the two broad categories,natural or man-made.More importantly,a main reason for escape includes death,as “Mortality,even more than destiny,sums up all the objectionables that we would escape from”.〔3〕In addition,Heilman also points out that “escape … introduces inevitably the counter idea of restraint,constraint,unfriendly pullback …”〔4〕Simply,Man’s ultimate intention for escape is to be freed of natural or man-made restrains and the search for freedom.

From a psychological perspective,“escape as a mode of dealing with imperfect existence”〔5〕is man’s response towards imperfect existence.Furthermore,Escapism is a complex living philosophy that cannot be too hastily labelled with cowardice.Hence,this paper suggests that contrary to the popular convention of labelling Escapism as a term with derogatory connotations,Escapism can be viewed as a neutral term as well.Since Escapism is an effective means of self-protection,understanding Escapism may lead us to better,positive understanding of Man’s tendencies when faced with dire circumstances.Research of Escapism would hence be imbued with a deeper meaning.We would also able to discuss the topic and content of Escapism in a more objective light in this sense.

The concept of Escapism is not an original conception but has long existed in the Western world.It is however,important to note that such a concept of Escapism have neither been widely discussed nor extensively developed.

Currently,the only available publication of most relevance to the topic is Escapism,written by Yi-Fu Tuan.〔6〕It is also translated into Chinese by Zhou Shangyi and Zhang Chunmei.〔7〕It is important to note that Tuan’s publication is essentially a discussion of Escapism via the perspective of Geography,bearing no relations to literature or even more specifically,Chinese Classical literature.〔8〕This is the breakthrough this thesis attempts,to employ the concept of Escapism in the study of Chinese Classical Literature,especially in the research of Wei-Jin literature.

Tuan lists four means of Escape in Escapism.These include:(1)Spatial movement;(2)Altering nature;〔9〕(3)Constructing a material world of specific significance based on imagination (such as architecture) … escaping from displeasure towards the real world psychologically;and (4) Creating an imaginary world … to truly realize escape,Man needs to depend upon imaginary creation.〔10〕Escapists are able to constructing another world out of imagination,using it as a substitute or supplement of the real world,enabling them to seek solace and happiness when met with the challenges of reality,just like “visiting Disneyland … people engross themselves in the magical and fairytale world they have created themselves,to ‘escape’ the many troubles of reality.”〔11〕This paper seeks to prove the existence of an escapism complex present in Ruan Ji’s poetry.

Ⅱ.Escapist imagery:one perspective to read Ruan Ji’s poetry

Should we adopt the above means of Escape proposed by Tuan in the analysis of poetry of Ruan Ji (210-263),we will discover that the first means of escape (Spatial movement) and the fourth means of escape (Creating an imaginary world … to truly escape,Man needs to depend upon imaginary creation) has direct correlation to the content presented in Ruan’s poetry.

Firstly,“Spatial movement” is closely related to the transport related imagery in Ruan’s poems represented by the key terms such as cart车,horse马 and road路.Subsequently,the fourth means of escape implicating “Creating a spiritual world … to truly escape,Man needs to depend upon imaginary creation”,is a main characteristic of Ruan Ji’s works.This is evident in the depiction of a non-existent immortal world in Ruan Ji’s immortality poetry 游仙诗.Furthermore,the third means of escape,“Constructing a material world of specific significance based on imagination (such as architecture) … escaping from displeasure towards the real world psychologically”,is indirectly related Ruan’s works.This indirect relation mainly presents itself through Ruan Ji seeking psychological solace and repose via literal composition,escaping from displeasure he harbored towards the real world psychologically.Hence,other than “Changing nature”,the content presented by the works of Ruan Ji encompasses the other three means of Escape proposed by Duan,namely:(1)Content in literary works related to spatial movement;(2)Escaping from displeasure towards the real world psychologically;and (3)Depending upon imagination to create an imaginary world through literary composition to realize true escape.

Ruan lived in a time of dynastic transition.Hence,he faced an environment laden with severe political strife throughout his life under a backdrop of constant change and unrest.Though living in such times of unrest,he yearned to fulfil his dreams but found his efforts ever fruitless.Coupled with the fact that literates have their lives hanging in the balance,the fear of political strife naturally arises in him.〔12〕This leads to the common choice he and many other escapists make when facing the reality:Escape.However,since Ruan is also a sensitive writer,he tends to adopt an aesthetic and spiritual perspective in scrutinising reality in their respective poetry.He sought solace and repose through infusing his deep thoughts on the meaning of life,similar sentiments towards the political environment he finds himself in,and the common disappointment in his innate capabilities in his poetry via Escapism.

Berlin’s depiction as mentioned above is not isolated,a similar account can also be found in Luo Yuming’s analysis of Poem XLVI from Ruan Ji’s Yonghuai Poetry:

From the hall to the “Nine Divisions,” i.e.,the entire world,no one is seen.Even when one cannot bear the loneliness and therefore expects to “meet and talk with” family and friends,the only option is a kind of self-release (xie,to write,is also to discharge or to release) without any real mental communication … such a sense of loneliness,based on the essence of life itself…the feeling of loneliness is in fact a kind of self-realization by denying and rejecting the outside world,the self’s existence in the world is actually underscored.〔13〕

The act of literary composition or “xie” 写 not only allows Ruan to escape into his “inner citadel”,it also allows him a kind of self-release from the profound sense of loneliness or the adversity,helplessness and complete distress he faced in life,ultimately allowing him to achieve a kind of “self-realization”.The close-knitted relationship between Escapism and literature cannot be illustrated more comprehensively.

We believe that escapism in poetry allows authors to find psychological solace.Similarly,it also allows us to understand the same means readers of escape literature derive psychological consolation.Hence,Zhong Rong’s Ranking of Poetry refers to Ruan’s works:“Yonghuai poetry may mold a person’s temperament and stimulate deep thought.With words within hearing and sight,but with emotions in the extremely remote areas” 咏怀之作，可以陶性灵、发幽思。言在耳目之内，情寄八荒之表.〔14〕Zhong Rong’s commentary refers to the means for which the author gains psychological consolation.On the other hand,“may mold a person’s temperament and stimulate deep thought” refers to the psychological consolation that a reader would gain from reading works with Escapism.

With regards to the relationship between literature and readers,Heilman points out that “All literature has in it something of the sanctuary,the entering of which resembles an escape from something else.” He goes on to add that:“Literatures of escape … literature that offers certainty as a relief from all the incertitudes and unpredictabilities of actuality,and the literature that offers a more extensive world,a world of greater human potentiality,than one’s experiences in actuality.”〔15〕This matches Sir Isaiah Berlin’s concept of an “inner citadel” completely.To Mankind,literary experience has a feature of escape “There is some element of escape in reading all kinds of literature,that one may escape into a simpler and more orderly world or into a richer and deeper one …”〔16〕This paper believes that the predictability and certainty literature offers is consistent towards both the author and the reader.Heilman also pointed out that “Escape literature … tend to name troubles,monotony,dreary actuality,or an objectively defective world as the prisons to be fled from on the wings of song or an airborne prose.”〔17〕

From a psychological perspective,Tang Min discusses about the relationship between the unconscious mind and Utopia.Tang believes that:“In Freud’s research,the unconscious mind is merely a speculation based on individual experience;it has always been the subject’s escape from consciousness,a sanctuary sought when the subject is faced with conscious torment.”〔18〕More importantly,Tang further to discuss about the linkage between “Utopia” and the unconscious mind.Tang points out that “’Utopia’ characterises a perfect but impossible society conceived by a particular individual or majority of a society…later,Utopia was gradually being used to represent impossible or near impossible ideals in one’s social or spiritual life.”〔19〕It is evident that both Heilman and Tang’s concept of “sanctuary” can be interchangeable with Berlin’s “inner citadel”.Tang’s utopia bears startling similarity with Luo Zongqiang’s mention of a “frequently occurring carefree world which does not exist in reality”〔20〕in Ruan Ji’s poetry.Luo Zongqiang view on artistic expression is as follows:

With regards to artistic expression,Ruan Ji utilises a great amount of allusions,metaphors,and symbolisms to enhance his imagery,sculpting the atmosphere within his works,to express his deep felt emotions,and hence it seems that his works have profound implications.

在艺术表现方式上，阮籍用典颇多，多用比兴、象征烘托意象渲染气氛，来表达自己的深切情思，所以也显得意蕴深沉。〔21〕

The use of imagery plays a very significant part of Ruan Ji’s literary style.According to Yuan Xingpei,“The vocabulary for imagery is a unique exhibition of the poet’s style,and also depends on whether the poet commands a personalized group of imagery or habitual imagery and vocabulary”,〔22〕hence the imagery group found in Ruan’s poetry represents his literary style.

The chapter of “Shensi” (Imagination神思) in “Dragon-Craving and the Literary Mind” states,“…with a mind of unique perception,one can wield the writing brush to capture the images in one’s vision” 独照之匠，窥意象而运斤.〔23〕Liu Xie was utilizing the allusion of Lun Bian’s choice of wood to create a wheel 轮扁斫轮 to illustrate the importance of imagery in the process of literary creation.Scholastic definitions of Chinese poetry imagery may somewhat varied in which the most important representative view is Yuan Xingpei’s as follows:

Imagery is using objective objects infused with subjective emotions or utilising objective objects to express subjective emotions (in literary composition).意象是融入了主观情意的客观物象，或者借助客观物象表现出来的主观情意。〔24〕

Hence,imagery is the use of language to present an objective object with the aim of expressing the writer’s subjective emotions to readers.Imagery is objective language references encompassing the poets’ experience of aesthetic appreciation and characteristic emotions.This undoubtedly accentuates the fact that the commonly used imagery in Ruan’s poetry is representative of Ruan’s character,artistic style,emotions and thoughts.

From the perspective of Escape and Escapism,we can call the imagery in Ruan Ji’s poetry is escapist imagery.In summary,Ruan Ji’s Escapist imagery include three categories:(1)Spatial Escape:Transportation Imagery,including to cart,horse and road;(2)Breaking Free:Flight Imagery,including to bird and flight,and float 飘 and drift 飘飖;(3)Self-release:Immortal Imagery,including to carefree roaming 逍遥 and immortal wandering.〔25〕Of course,each type of escapist imagery has Ruan Ji’s subjective blue emotions.The traditional reputation of Ruan’s Yonghuai poetry being “profound in gist,but hard to fathom” is a result of his stylistic use of escapist imagery in the process of his literary composition.We take five pieces of works,including one fu-poetry,two four word Yonghuai poems and two five-word Yonghuai poems,as case studies to find out a new perspective to read Ruan Ji.

Ⅲ.Ruan Ji’s escapism complex:case studies

1.“Dongping fu” 东平赋〔26〕

Ruan Ji’s biography in the “History of the Jin Dynasty” (Jin Shu) records that Ruan Ji once held the office as magistrate of Dongping (north of modern Ji Ning,Shandong):

When Sima Zhao was assisting the Emperor to rule,Ruan Ji once approached him casually and said:“I have travelled to Dongping and I was pleased with the customs there.”Sima Zhao was most pleased and immediately appointed him as the magistrate of Dongping.Ruan Ji travelled there on the back of a donkey.Upon arrival he ordered the removal of the protective screens in his office so that all could see each other,within and without.He made the procedures of the law simple and clear.及文帝辅政,籍尝从容言于帝曰:“籍平生曾游东平,乐其风土.”帝大悦,即拜东平相.籍乘驴到郡,坏府舍屏障,使内外相望,法令清简,同日而还。〔27〕

With regards to this,Ruan Ji had requested to go to Dongping as an excuse;actually Ruan’s move was purely made in order to escape his political predicament.〔28〕Here,“I am pleased with the customs there” is really not good excuse,so probably Ruan Ji and Sima Zhao had an agreement in private that Ruan Ji does not protest Sima Zhao publicly then Sima Zhao allows him to leave capital.

“Dongping fu” is hard to understand,as Holzman said,“I cannot pretend to have understood the ‘Tung-p’ing fu’ completely.Certain elements (that are perhaps satirical) have escaped me entirely;others I have probably understood only in part.”〔29〕However,obviously,it is closely relevant to the concept of Escapism.From capital to Dongping,it is a spatial movement which is the first means of Escapism.Ruan Ji created an artistic conception of escape in “Dongping fu” with an immortal realm.The reader can find the content of “Dongping fu” is nothing with the county of Dongping.Ruan Ji wanted to express the desire to take flight and enter the ideal immortal realm,away from the troubles of reality via imagination.

Actually almost all the escapist imagery we mentioned above can be found in “Dongping fu”.Here we focus on the detailed depiction of an immortal realm from four parts:

(1)Ling Lun would linger with the Phoenix at the south of Mount Kunlun,Zou Yan would inhale the freezing air and exhale warm air in the north of the Millet Valley,Bo Gao would alternate between holding office and reclusion in the ancient dynasties of Yao and Shun,Xian Men would lead a carefree life at the peaks of the three mythical mountains (Fang Zhang,Peng Lai,Ying Zhou),upwards they could soar in the second realm of Kun Lun paradise,downwards they could dwell in the mythical Deng Lin forest.Phoenixes sung,flying phoenixes danced,the valleys were covered with luxuriant fine mille.伶伦游凤于昆仑之阳，邹子翕温于黍谷之阴，伯高登降于尚季之上，羡门逍遥于三山之岑，上遨玄圃，下游邓林，凤鸟自歌，翔鸾自舞，嘉谷蕃殖，匪我稷黍。

(2)I mean to return to a place of good morals,inviting Master Wang (Wang Zi Qiao) to travel with me.Rinsing our mouths with the juices from the flowers of the Qiong tree (fairy tree),feeling its sweetness and refreshing,drinking from the clear stream of Bai Shui Ling He (a mythical river originating from Kun Lun Mountain,with waters granting immortality).Ceasing only when I have emptied my heart:For then what affliction could I keep in my breast? 将言归于美俗兮，请王子与俱游。漱玉液之滋怡兮，饮白水之清流。遂虚心而后已兮，又何怀乎患忧？

(3)The Fu Yao fairy tree is concealed in the Valley of He Xu (an ancient mythical mountain),the auspicious light of Xian Chi (the place where the Sun bathes,according to ancient myths) sparkles in the immortal realm of Zeng Cheng...I sound the depths from an Empty Boat and put mind at ease,Carefree roaming,for a time,in the Sea of Purity.扶摇蔽于合墟兮，咸池照乎增城……测虚舟以遑思兮，聊逍遥于清溟。

d) Remembering the genuine admonitions of Xuan(miao) Zhen(ren) 玄妙真人,And think of the form the perfect man (Zhi Ren) puts on.The embroidered clothes of perfect man are beautiful and magnificent,yet diversely interlaced,my thoughts are more far-reaching but regulated by the theory of Xuan.Perfect man and I changed the direction of our chariots in Quan Hui (ditch in the fields),it seems like we would arrive at the mythical mountain of Kong Sang instantly.玄真之谌训兮，想至人之有形。绣靡睹其纷错兮，虑弥远而度逼，并旋轸于畎浍兮，若空桑之可即。〔30〕

From this quote,coupled with the background knowledge we have of Ruan’s short stint at Dongping,we can observe the intensification of escape sentiments Ruan Ji’s has,from an “escape” via spatial movement (from capital to Dongping) to that in an imaginary immortal realm.These mythical characters such as Ling Lun,Zou Yan,Bo Gao,Xian Men〔Zi Gao〕 in part a);Wang Zi 〔Qiao〕 in part b);and Xuan 〔Miao〕 Zhen〔Ren〕,Zhi Ren in part d) exist in the mythical places of Mount Kunlun,Millet Valley,San Shan,Xuan Pu,Deng Lin,Xian Chi,Zeng Cheng.Both the characters and the places do not exist in reality.

Ruan Ji’s depiction of immortals is filled with admiration “upwards they could soar in the second realm of Kun Lun paradise,downwards they could dwell in the Deng Lin mythical forest” freely travelling around,the immortal realm having “Phoenixes 凤 sung,flying phoenixes 鸾 danced,the valleys were covered with luxuriant fine millet”.The imagery phoenix (two kinds,“feng” and “luan”) definitely is Ruan Ji’s self-image,appeared three times in part a).It led a carefree and peaceful lifestyle which is Ruan Ji actually desired to escape reality.From “Deeply agreeing with the old anecdote on Qiu Li,hence I wrote a piece of new poem to seek console” in the same text,we can observe the relationship between Ruan Ji’s literary composition and his emotions evidently from “hence I wrote a piece of new poem to seek console.”〔31〕

Furthermore,here we would love to talk over three specific immortal imagery:“Xian Men”,“Wang Zi” and “Zhi Ren”.

For the immortal “Xian Men”,actually means Xian Men Zi Gao,Wang Shumin writes “Qin Shi Huang sent Lu Sheng to search for Xian Men Zi Gao”.〔32〕More importantly,the image “Xian Men” have also appeared in Ruan Ji’s series of five-wordYonghuai Poetry.It appears in poem XV “Now I know the truth of Xian Men Zi/ and laugh at myself,tears rolling down my cheeks” 乃悟羡门子，噭噭今自嗤,and also in poem LXXXI “Once upon a time those gods/ called Xian Men Zi,Songzi and Prince Jin” 昔有神仙者，羡门及松乔。

For the immortal “Wang Zi”(Prince),Wang Shumin refers:

Wang Zi Qiao is Prince Jin,descendent of King Ling of Zhou.He is good at using the reedpipe to imitate the sound of a phoenix.When he was travelling between River Yi and River Luo,the Taoist Priest Fu Qiu Gong escorted him to Song Gao Mountain.Thirty years later,when sought for at the top of the mountain,he met Huan Liang and said:“Tell my family to wait for me at the peak of Gou Shi Mountain.”When the time came,Wang Zi Qiao rode a white crane and arrived at the top of the mountain.He was seen but cannot be reached.He raised his arms and bade the people farewell,leaving after a few days.Altars were erected at the foot of Gou Shi Mountain and the top of Song Mountain.王子乔者，周灵王太子晋也。好吹笙做凤凰鸣。游伊、洛之间，道士浮丘公接以上嵩高山。三十余年后，求之于山上，见桓良，曰：“告我家七月七日待我于缑氏山颠。”至时，果乘白鹤驻山头。望之不得到，举手谢时人，数日而去。亦立祠于缑氏山下，及嵩山首焉。〔33〕

It is obvious Wang Zi is indeed Wang Zi Qiao (Prince Qiao,王子乔) or Wang Zi Jin (Prince Jin,王子晋).Both Prince Qiao and Prince Jin are represented simply as “Prince” in Ruan Ji’s poetry.It is important to note that the quote also mentions “Taoist Priest Fu Qiu Gong escorted him (Prince Jin) to Song Gao Mountain”,depicting Fu Qiu Gong escorting Prince Jin in to the immortal realm.Hence,we believe that the lines in Poem LXV,“But there was a place for him to encounter Master Fuqiu,and thus bid farewell to everyone here for good?” 焉见浮丘公，举手谢时人 is actually referring to Prince Jin.Prince Jin “is good at using the reedpipe to imitate the sound of a phoenix”.Imagery “phoenix” implies “prince” himself and is also Ruan Ji’s admiration.This imagery will appear again and again in Ruan Ji’s other poems (we will talk later).We get back to “Prince”.According to our statistics,the imagery “prince” appears through the following key terms,Prince Jin,Prince,Prince Qiao,or Song Qiao,〔34〕with a total occurrence of 12 times in Ruan Ji’s poetry.From the last two lines in part b),Ceasing only when I have emptied my heart:For then what affliction could I keep in my breast? We can see the affliction in Ruan Ji’s heart although/therefore he so much admires the “Prince”.

“Prince” is an immortal just like “Zhi Ren” in part d).The immortal Zhi Ren (perfect man) is celestial being which has super natural power which Ruan Ji admires,originating from Zhuangzi’s “The Equality of Things”齐物论:

The perfect man is a spiritual being.Even if oceans burned up,he would not feel hot.Even if the great rivers are frozen,he would not feel cold.And even if terrific thunder was to break up mountains and the wind was to upset the sea,he would not be afraid.Being such,he mounts upon the clouds and forces of heaven,rides on the sun and the moon,and roams beyond the four seas.Neither life nor death affects him.How much less can such matters as benefit and harm?〔35〕至人神矣！大泽焚而不能热，河汉冱而不能寒，疾雷破山、风振海而不能惊。若然者，乘云气，骑日月，而游乎四海之外，死生无变于己，而况利害之端乎！

One thing needs to be pointed out that Ruan Ji is the first poet to escape from the life suffering through Zhuang Zi which affects Song literati:Su Shi (1037-1101).Both of them forced to retreat to an inner citadel (Isaiah Berlin’s saying).Zhuang Zi gradually becomes a Chinese ancient scholars’ psychological tool to survive or escape.

2.Four-word Yonghuai Poetry — using Poem IX and Poem XIII as example

In this section,we will prove the existence of Escapism via the analysis of two poems penned by Ruan Ji,namely Poem IX and Poem XIII of his four-word Yonghuai Poetry.

Poem IX of the four-word Yonghuai Poetry 四言《咏怀诗》其九

Gazing the extremes of my sight after climbing to the pinnacle 登高望远

Looking around and observing the four directions and eight corners 周览八偶

Mountain clusters and big rivers overlap for vast distances 山川悠邈

long and endless roads lead different ways vertically and horizontally 长路乖殊

Sighing upon Mozi (who grieved at the dyeing silk) 感彼墨子

Reminiscing Yang Zhu (who cried at the forked road) 怀此杨朱

Embracing the lonely shadow,neck stretched standing straight 抱影鹄立

Head lifted,looking around with hesitation and wavered 企首踟蹰

Facing upwards,soaring birds in flight can be seen 仰瞻翔鸟

Looking downwards fishes are seen swimming merrily 俯视游鱼

Scattered clouds float and danced in the red forest 丹林云霏

Strong gusts of wind curved and stretched in the green leaf clusters 绿叶风舒

Nature (Zi Ran) nurtures in the chaotic exchange of Yin and Yang 造化絪缊

All things created are varied and numerous 万物纷敷

All things are insufficient if we say they are numerous 大则不足

All things are in excess if we say they are lacking 约则有余

What means should be employed to take care of one’s psyche? 何用养志

Seeking to get to the misty Chong Xu(no seeking for reputation) 守以冲虚

But still wishes that the different world 犹愿异世

Will enjoy similar prosperity and fortune for eternity 万载同符

From Poem IX,we can see the imagery of “road”,“flying bird”,“travel” and “immortal roaming”.Firstly,for “road” imagery there is “Mountain clusters and big rivers overlap for vast distances/ long and endless roads lead different ways vertically and horizontally” and “Sighing upon Mozi / Reminiscing Yang Zhu”.Here,we can observe that the road Ruan Ji encounters in the poem is related to his emotions,which explains why he “Sighs upon Mozi/ Reminisce Yang Zhu”〔36〕after seeing that “Mountain clusters and big rivers overlap for vast distances/ long and endless roads lead different ways vertically and horizontally”.Is it Yang Zhu crying at the forked road or Ruan Ji feeling sad at his own road (fate)? The answer is obvious.The two lines seen in the poem later,“Facing upwards,soaring birds in flight can be seen/ Looking downwards fishes are seen swimming merrily” depicts the imagery of “the freedom flying birds and swimming fishes enjoy”,is actually representative of Ruan Ji’s desire for freedom.Then we can observe from the beginning two line that “Gazing the extremes of my sight after climbing to the pinnacle/ Looking around and observing the four directions and eight corners” is actually describing spatial movement,a form of travel imagery.Finally,Ruan Ji concludes the poem with his wishes in “What means should be employed to take care of one’s psyche?/ Seeking to get to the misty Chong Xu”.From realistic escape by climbing to the pinnacle in reality,Ruan Ji further deepens it to the misty and uncertain immortal realm of Chong Xu(kind of void status).We can easily see Ruan’s inclinations towards escape.

Poem XIII of the four-word Yonghuai Poetry 四言《咏怀诗》其十三

The fresh and cool morning breeze sweeps the dust and mud 晨风扫尘

The morning rain splatters,moisturizing the road to be taken 朝雨洒路

Four horses pulling a cart gallops speedily like a dragon leaping forth 飞驷龙腾

With great sadness in my heart I looked around 哀鸣外顾

With rein in my hand,I lightly waved the horsewhip 揽整按策

Moving forward or backwards,incoherence with norms 进退有度

Joy is found in the past,but only sadness can be felt for the future 乐往哀来

Upset for seemingly lost something but found a heartfelt realization 怅然心悟

Longing for the respectful and cautious persons of virtue of the past 念彼恭人

Lingering longings,looking back with thoughts and memories 眷眷怀顾

The Sun and Moon does not remain but waxes and wanes 日月运往

With age already in the twilight years 岁聿云暮

Sighing at childish people like me 嗟余幼人

So ignorant and so very stubborn 既顽且固

We also once harbored great ambitions 岂不志远

But respect and admiration cannot be earned with our talents 才难企慕

Life is not solid gold or rock-firm 命非金石

Man’s body is trivial just like morning dew 身轻朝露

How to be like the immortals Chi Song and Wang Zi Qiao 焉知松乔

Taking care of their psyche in that Tai Su(substance beginning) 颐神太素

Beyond the premises of carefree 逍遥区外

My youth and age is increased 登我年祚

This poem contains transport-related imagery which include “road” and “horse”,and also two types of immortality-related imagery (the immortals Chi Song and Wang Zi Qiao,and carefree).Firstly,with regards to transport-related imagery such as “road” and “horse”,the opening lines of the poem has “The fresh and cool morning breeze sweeps the dust and mud/ The morning rain splatters,moisturizing the road to be taken”.The “road to be taken” accounts for the background of this poem.In addition,we can also find “The group of four horses pulling a cart gallops speedily like a dragon leaping forth/ With great sadness in my heart I looked around” and “With rein in my hand,I lightly waved the horsewhip/ Moving forward or backwards,incoherence with norms” which includes “horse” imagery.“Horse” and “Road” imagery are escape tools for spatial movement,what we need to pay attention to is Ruan’s emotions of “With great sadness in my heart I looked around” and “sadness can be felt for the future”.Obviously,such means of escape is unable to satisfy Ruan Ji’s dissatisfaction with reality,“We also once harbored great ambitions/ But respect and admiration cannot be earned with our talents”,that is why Ruan can only question “How to be like the immortals Chi Song and Wang Zi Qiao/ Taking care of their psyche in that Tai Su” hoping that he can be like Chi Song Zi and Wang Zi Qiao,having the ability to increase his youth and age beyond the premises of carefree,just like “Xian Men would lead a carefree life at the peaks of the three mythical mountains” and “Carefree roaming,for a time,in the Sea of Purity” in “Dongpu Fu” and escape into an imaginary immortal realm without worries and troubles.

3.Five-word Yonghuai Poetry — using poem I and poem LXXIX as example

This section will prove the existence of Escapism through an analysis of the imagery present in Poem I and Poem LXXIX in Ruan Ji’s pentasyllabic Yonghuai Poetry.

Poem I of the pentasyllabic Yonghuai Poetry

Midnight,and I can’t sleep 夜中不能寐

Sitting up,I play upon my harp 起坐弹鸣琴

My gauze curtains mirror the moonlight 薄帷鉴明月

A fresh breeze,fluttering my sleeves 清风吹我襟

The lone swan cries,crossing the wilderness 孤鸿号外野

Birds shriek,flying from the northern woods 翔鸟鸣北林

Pacing the courtyard,what can I see? 徘徊将何见

Only anxiety,fretting my heart 忧思独伤心

Poem I is not only an important “first piece in the beginning on the rise of his (Ruan Ji) emotions”,〔37〕it is also the introductory piece of Ruan Ji’s collection of eighty-two pentasyllabic Yonghuai Poetry.Within the poem,we can see Ruan’s imagery including that of Ruan’s self-image and also that of “flying bird”.The lines “A fresh breeze,fluttering my sleeves” and “Only anxiety,fretting my heart” expressed Ruan’s frustration and misery with only anxiety fretting his heart.In addition,bird imagery which include “the lone swan” and “flying birds” can also be found in the lines,“The lone swan cries,crossing the wilderness/ Birds shriek,flying from the northern woods”.We believe that despite “the lone swan” and “flying birds” conveying an imagery of isolation in Ruan’s expression of emotions of melancholy and frustration,if he meant to express that his state is worse than the “the lone swan” and “flying birds”,these two bird imagery would then suggest Ruan’s desire to escape the melancholy and frustration he faced in reality,to “fly” towards the vast and broad skies in freedom.

Poem LXXIX of the pentasyllabic Yonghuai Poetry 五言《咏怀诗》其七十九

In the forest dwells an extraordinary bird 林中有奇鸟

Which calls himself a phoenix 自言是凤凰

Mornings he drinks from the clear fountain 清朝饮醴泉

Evenings he rests on the mountaintop 日夕栖山冈

He sings at the top of his voice across the entire land 高鸣彻九洲

He stretches his neck and peers about him across the wilderness 延颈望八荒

When the Autumn winds begin to blow 适逢商风起

And crack his wings 羽翼自摧藏

He flies to the western side of Kunlun Mountain 一去昆仑西

No-one knows the time of his return 何时复回翔

But no,I am not like him 但恨处非位

My heart breaks 怆悢使心伤

The main types of imagery found in this poem include “phoenix” (a combination of bird and immortal-related theme) and that of Ruan’s self-image.Firstly,the line “In the forest dwells an extraordinary bird” immediately presents to us“bird” imagery.However,in the next line given “Which calls himself a phoenix” immediately transforms this bird into a phoenix,a mythical bird which exists only myths.Noteworthy is the fact that this phoenix desires to fly towards the immortal realm of Kunlun,〔38〕“he flies to the western side of Kunlun Mountain”,but due to the fact that “I am not like him”,Ruan can only express his personal emotions of sadness with “My heart breaks”.

This resonates with Xu Qixiu’s point that “perhaps with the use of mythical immortal roamings,they all contain meanings and emotions beyond the mere words,obscurely and tactfully expressing thoughts and emotions.”〔39〕In this poem,we can also see an indirect presentation of Ruan’s self-image.According to Han Geping’s commentary,“Ruan uses this poem to compare himself to the phoenix”,stating that Ruan’s self-image is represented by the extraordinary bird in the forest,that phoenix.“But no,I am not like him” immediately informs us about what Ruan thinks about himself in reality,that even though he wishes to soar towards the immortal realm in Kunlun but is never able to realistically.We believe that the inclinations towards the phoenix and immortal realm in Kunlun seen in this poem actually represents Ruan Ji’s desire to escape reality.From the imagery including that of the phoenix and Ruan’s self-image linking the entire poem,just like the phoenix in “Dongping fu”,we are able to observe the Escapism present.

Ⅳ.A short conclusion

From the perspective of Escape and Escapism we found through the analysis of imagery present in Ruan Ji’s “Dongping fu”,four-word Yonghuai poems and pentasyllabic Yonghuai poems,we can ascertain that the Escapist imagery categories and imagery clusters proposed in part two of this paper can also be applied to the analysis of Ruan Ji’s respective individual works.Once again,this proves that Escapism indeed exists in Ruan Ji’s poetry.This Escapism Complex which is closely connected to Ruan Ji’s mode of existence.

Personally,we believe there are three important literati figures in the Wei-Jin period who represent three different modes of existence,except being killed like many renowned scholars such as Kong Rong,Ji Kang(153-208),〔40〕Lu Ji(261-303),Pan Yue(247-300),Zhang Hua(232-300),etc.,i.e.Cao Zhi(192-232)’s relegation mode,Ruan Ji (210-263)’s Escape mode and Tao Qian (365-427)’s recluse mode.Ruan Ji is different with Cao Zhi,who was relegated from the 25th year of Jian’an(220) and died as a kind of “prisoner” in 232 when Ruan Ji was twenty-two years old.He is also different with Tao Qian,who voluntarily became a recluse after three times’ short official lives.We would say Ruan Ji is really unique because he was not relegated by the ruler like Cao Zhi and he did not seclude as a recluse like Tao Qian while he chose to be in-between and survived as another mode of existence:Escape.

〔1〕Berlin,I,Two Concepts of Liberty,in Isaiah Berlin (1969)’s Four Essays on Liberty,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1958,p.11.

〔2〕Heilman,Robert B.,Escape and Escapism:Varieties of Literary Experience,in The Sewanee Review,Vol.83,No.3,Summer 1975,p.440.

〔3〕Escape and Escapism:Varieties of Literary Experience,p.442.

〔4〕Escape and Escapism:Varieties of Literary Experience,p.440.

〔5〕Escape and Escapism:Varieties of Literary Experience,p.442.

〔6〕Yi-Fu,Tuan, Escapism,Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1998.

〔7〕Yi-Fu,Tuan 段义孚,Translated into Chinese by Zhou Shangyi 周尚意and Zhang Chunmei 张春梅, Taobi zhuyi 逃避主义,Taipei City,Xindian District:Lixu Wenhua,2006.

〔8〕 Taobi zhuyi,p.11.

〔9〕Traditional Chinese culture worships “mutual existence of nature and human”天人合一,so people do not desire to change nature.

〔10〕 Taobi zhuyi,pp.12-13.

〔11〕 Escapism,p.27.

〔12〕Yuan Xingpei 袁行霈, Tao Yuanming yanjiu陶渊明研究,Beijing:Peking University Press,1997,p.157.

〔13〕Luo Yuming,translated by Yang Ye,A Concise History of Chinese Literature,The Netherlands:Koninklijke Brill NV,2011,p.169.

〔14〕 A Concise History of Chinese Literature,pp.169-170.

〔15〕Escape and Escapism:Varieties of Literary Experience,p.454.

〔16〕Escape and Escapism:Varieties of Literary Experience,p.457.

〔17〕Escape and Escapism:Varieties of Literary Experience,p.451.

〔18〕Tang Min 唐敏,Yishi de taobi — lun wuyishi de wutuobang xingzhi意识的逃避——论无意识的乌托邦性质, Harbin Xueyuan Xuebao,Vol.30,No.4,April 2009,p.93.

〔19〕Yishi de taobi — lun wuyishi de wutuobang xingzhi,p.93.

〔20〕Luo Zongqiang 罗宗强, Weijin Nanbei chao wenxue sixiang shi魏晋南北朝文学思想史,Beijing:Zhonghua Shuju,1996,p.51.

〔21〕 Weijin Nanbei chao wenxue sixiang shi,p.314.

〔22〕Yuan Xingpei 袁行霈, Zhongguo shige yishu yanjiu,中国诗歌艺术研究,Beijing:Peking University Press,2002,p.56.

〔23〕Liu,Xie,Translated into English by Yang Guobin,Translated into modern Chinese by Zhou Zhenfu, Dragon-Craving and the Literary Mind II:Chapter 26:Shensi,or Imagination,Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2003,p.377.

〔24〕 Zhongguo shige yishu yanjiu,p.53.

〔25〕Details refer to another paper:“Escapist Imagery in Ruan Ji’s Poetry” (unpublished).

〔26〕There is translation and analysis,which is the only scholarly works on “Dongping fu” in the English world while I did not refer at the beginning of this article’s writing:Chapter 2 “Tung-p’ing” of Donald Holzman, Poetry and Politics:The Life and Works of Juan Chi,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1976.

〔27〕Fang Xuanling 房玄龄ed., Jinshu,Beijing:Zhonghua shuju,1974,p.1360.

〔28〕The piece was written in 255.Six years ago,in 249,Sima Yi(Sima Zhao’s father) sent out “Incident of Dianwu”典午之变(also was called as “Gaopingling” Incident高平陵之变) since which was the darkest and most horrible period lasting 16 years.Half of renowned scholars had been killed.

〔29〕Poetry and Politics: The Life and Works of Juan Chi,p.47.

〔30〕Han Geping 韩格平, Translation and Annotation,Zhulin qixian shiwen quanji yizhu 竹林七贤诗文全集译注,Changchun:Jinlin wenshi chubanshe,1997,pp.15-18.The English translation refers this works.

〔31〕Translated based on Zhulin qixian shiwen quanji yizhu,p.14.

〔32〕Wang Shumin 王叔岷, Liexianzhuan jiaojian列仙传校笺,Beijing:Zhonghua Shuju,2007,p.98.

〔33〕 Liexianzhuan jiaojian,p.65.

〔34〕“Song Qiao” refers to the combination of immortals Chi Song Zi and Prince Qiao.

〔35〕Chan,Wing-Tsit, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy,Princeton:Princeton University Press,1963,p.188.

〔36〕Translated with reference from Zhulin qixian shiwen quanji yizhu,p.183.

〔37〕Ye Jiaying 叶嘉莹, Ye Jiaying shuo Hanwei liuchao shi 叶嘉莹说汉魏六朝诗,Beijing:Zhonghua Shuju,2007,p.229.

〔38〕 Zhulin qixian shiwen quanji yizhu,p.281.

〔39〕Xu Qixiu 徐启秀, Ruan Ji “Yonghuaishi” yanjiu 阮籍〈咏怀诗〉研究,Degree of Master of Arts Thesis,Yangzhou University (2010),p.63.

〔40〕We cannot always treat group writers like “Jianan qizi”(建安七子,Seven Poets of Jian’an period) or “Zhulin qixian”(竹林七贤,Seven Worthy Men in the Bamboo Forest) as the same character.

Notes:

〔1〕Berlin,I,Two Concepts of Liberty,In Isaiah Berlin (1969) Four Essays on Liberty,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1958.

〔2〕Heilman,Robert B.,Escape,Escapism and Varieties of Literary Experience,in The Sewanee Review,Vol.83,No.3 (Summer 1975).

〔3〕Yi-Fu,Tuan, Escapism (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1998).

〔4〕Yi-Fu,Tuan 段义孚,Translated into Chinese by Zhou Shangyi 周尚意 and Zhang Chunmei 张春梅, Taobi zhuyi 逃避主义,Taipei City,Xindian District:Lixu Wenhua,2006.

〔5〕Donald Holzman, Poetry and Politics:The Life and Works of Juan Chi,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1976.

〔6〕Yuan Xingpei 袁行霈, Tao Yuanming yanjiu陶渊明研究,Beijing:Peking University Press,1997.

〔7〕Luo Yuming,translated by Yang Ye, A Concise History of Chinese Literature,The Netherlands:Koninklijke Brill NV,2011.

〔8〕Tang Min 唐敏, Yishi de taobi — lun wuyishi de wutuobang xingzhi 意识的逃避——论无意识的乌托邦性质, Harbin xueyuan xuebao,Vol.30,No.4 (April 2009).

〔9〕Luo Zongqiang 罗宗强, Weijin Nanbei chao wenxue sixiang shi 魏晋南北朝文学思想史,Beijing:Zhonghua shuju,1996.

〔10〕Yuan Xingpei 袁行霈, Zhongguo shige yishu yanjiu 中国诗歌艺术研究,Beijing:Peking University Press,2002.

〔11〕Liu Xie,Translated into English by Yang Guobin,Translated into modern Chinese by Zhou Zhenfu, Dragon-Craving and the Literary Mind II:Chapter 26:Shensi,or Imagination,Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2003.

〔12〕Han Geping (Translation and Annotation) 韩格平, Zhulin qixian shiwen quanji yizhu 竹林七贤诗文全集译注,Changchun:Jilin wenshi chubanshe,1997.

〔13〕Wang Shumin 王叔岷, Liexianzhuan jiaojian 列仙传校笺,Beijing:Zhonghua shuju,2007.

〔14〕Li Zhaoyang 李朝阳,Ruan Ji “Dongping Fu” chulun 阮籍〈东平赋〉刍论, Taiyuan shifan xueyuan xuebao (Shehui kexue ban),Vol.10,No.5 (Sept.2011).

〔15〕Ye Jiaying 叶嘉莹, Ye Jiaying shuo Hanwei liuchao shi 叶嘉莹说汉魏六朝诗,Beijing:Zhonghua shuju,2007.

〔16〕Xu Qixiu 徐启秀, Ruan Ji “Yonghuaishi” yanjiu 阮籍〈咏怀诗〉研究,Degree of Master of Arts Thesis,Yangzhou University,2010.