Constable, Steven; Srnka, Leonard J

Deep-water fan systems and petroleum resources on the northern slope of the South China Sea

Pang, X; Yang, SK; Zhu, M; et al.

深海探测

·编者按·

从1960年代开始，发达国家率先向深海大洋进军，深海探测技术得以迅速发展。调查船、钻探船（平台）、各类探测仪器、装备，以及深潜器，水下机器人，取样设备，海底浅、中、深钻机和海底监测网等相继问世，探测广度和深度不断刷新。在深海极端环境、地震机理、深海生物和矿产资源，以及海底深部物质与结构等领域取得一系列重大进展和新发现。深海蕴藏着地球上未被认知和开发的宝藏，挺进深海是我国科技战略布局的重要一环。近 20年来，中国在深水油气勘探、天然气水合物探查、大洋矿产资源勘查和深海运载技术研究开发领域取得若干重大进展、突破和新发现，在深海技术及其相关探测仪器装备方面取得一系列重要成果。2015—2016年，“大洋一号”“海洋六号”“向阳红09号”“向阳红10号”“海洋22号”和“蛟龙号”执行了大洋第31～37、39～40共9个航次，先后在西南印度洋、东北太平洋、西太平洋、和雅浦海沟开展矿产资源、稀土资源、环境及生物多样性调查评价，取得一系列重要成果。2016年，我国深海科学和技术取得了里程碑式的进展。在中国科学院“海斗深渊前沿科技问题研究与攻关”战略性先导科技专项的支持下，由国际深海科技领域知名专家丁抗博士任首席专家，“探索一号”科考船在马里亚纳海沟挑战者深渊完成了我国第一次万米深渊装备海试及科考航次（TS01-01航次），共完成各类作业任务84项。目前，各项研究正在紧张有序地进行中。

本专题得到莫恭政研究员（国土资源部中国地质调查局青岛海洋地质研究所）、谢强研究员（深海科学与工程研究所）、郑军卫研究员（中国科学院兰州文献情报中心）的大力支持。

·热点数据排行·

截至 2016年 11月 8日，中国知网（CNKI）和Web of Science（WOS）的数据报告显示，以“深海技术（deep sea technology）”“深海探测（deep sea exploration）”为词条可以检索到的期刊文献分别为688条与 1520条，本专题将相关数据按照：研究机构发文数、作者发文数、期刊发文数、被引用频次进行排行，结果如下。

研究机构发文数量排名（CNKI）

研究机构发文数量排名（WOS）

作者发文数量排名（CNKI）

作者发文数量排名（WOS）

作者发文数量排名（CNKI）（续表）

作者发文数量排名（WOS）（续表）

期刊发文数量排名（CNKI）

期刊发文数量排名（WOS）

根据中国知网（CNKI）数据报告，以“深海技术（deep sea technology）”“深海探测（deep sea exploration）”为词条可以检索到的高被引论文排行结果如下。

国内数据库高被引论文排行

根据Web of Science统计数据，以“深海技术（deep sea technology）”“深海探测（deep sea exploration）”为词条可以检索到的高被引论文排行结果如下。

国外数据库高被引论文排行

·经典文献推荐·

基于 Web of Science检索结果，利用Histcite软件选取 LCS（Local Citation Score，本地引用次数）TOP50文献作为节点进行分析，得到本领域推荐的经典文献如下。

本领域经典文献

来源出版物：Geophysics, 1998, 63(3): 816-825

An introduction to marine controlled-source electromagnetic methods for hydrocarbon exploration

Constable, Steven; Srnka, Leonard J

Abstract:Early development of marine electromagnetic methods, dating back about 80 years, was driven largely by defense/military applications, and use for these purposes continues to this day. Deepwater, frequency-domain, electric dipole-dipole, controlled-source electromagnetic (CSEM) methods arose from academic studies of the oceanic lithosphere in the 1980s, and although the hydrocarbon exploration industry was aware of this work, the shallowwater environments being explored at that time were not ideally suited for its use. Low oil prices and increasingly successful results from 3D seismic methods further discouraged investment in costly alternative geophysical data streams. These circumstances changed in the late 1990s, when both Statoil and ExxonMobil began modeling studies and field trials of CSEM surveying in deep water (around 1000 m or deeper), specifically for characterizing the resistivity of previously identified drilling targets. Trials offshore Angola in 2000-2002 by both thesecompanies showed that CSEM data can successfully be used to evaluate reservoir resistivity for targets as deep as several thousand meters. Both companies leveraged instrumentation and expertise from the academic community to make swift progress. The resulting rapid growth in the use of marine EM methods for exploration has created a demand for trained personnel that is difficult to meet; nevertheless, at this time, CSEM data represent a commercial commodity within the exploration business, and acquisition services are offered by three companies. The ability to determine the resistivity of deep drilling targets from the seafloor may well make marine CSEM the most important geophysical technique to emerge since 3D reflection seismology.

来源出版物：Geophysics, 2007, 72(2): 3-12

Deep-water fan systems and petroleum resources on the northern slope of the South China Sea

Pang, X; Yang, SK; Zhu, M; et al.

Abstract:The shallow shelf delta/strand arenaceous-pelitic deposit region in the north of the Pearl River mouth basin, sitting on the northern continental shelf of the South China Sea, has already become an important oil production base in China. Recent researched has revealed that a great deal of deep-water fans of great petroleum potentiality exist on the Baiyun deep-water slope below the big paleo Pearl River and its large delta. Based on a mass of exploration wells and 2-D seismic data of the shallow shelf region, a interpretation of sequence stratigraphy confirmed the existence of deep-water fans. The cyclic failing of sea level, abundant detrital matter from the paleo Pearl River and the persistent geothermal subsidence in the Baiyun sag are the three prerequisites for the formation and development of deep-water fans. There are many in common between the deep-water shelf depositional system of the northern South China Sea and the exploration hotspots region on the two banks of the Atlantic. For example, both are located on passive continent margins, and persistent secular thermal subsidence and large paleo rivers have supplied abundant material sources and organic matter. More recently, the discovery of the big gas pool on the northern slope of the Baiyun sag confirms that the Lower Tertiary lacustrine facies in the Baiyun sag has a great potentiality of source rocks. The fans overlying the Lower Tertiary source rocks should become the main exploration areas for oil and gas resources.

northern deep-water slope of the South China Sea; deep-water fan; hydrocarbon resources

来源出版物：ACTA Geologica Sinica-English Edition, 2004, 78(3): 626-631

Deep-marine tidal bottom currents and their reworked sands in modern and ancient submarine canyons

Shanmugam, G

Abstract:Submarine canyons provide a unique setting for tidal processes to operate from shallow-marine to deepmarine environments. In modern canyons, current-meter measurements at varying water depths (46-4200 m) show a close correlation between the timing of up-and downcanyon currents and the timing of semi-diurnal tides. These tidal bottom currents in submarine canyons commonly attain maximum velocities of 25-50 cm/s. Based on core and outcrop studies of modem and ancient deep-marine deposits, it is proposed here that sand-mud rhythmites, double mud layers, climbing ripples, mud-draped ripples, alternation of parallel and cross-laminae, sigmoidal cross-bedding with mud drapes, internal erosional surfaces, lenticular bedding, and flaser bedding can be used to interpret deposits of deep-marine tidal currents. This approach is an alternative to the conventional approach in which most deep-water traction structures (e.g. climbing ripples and cross-bedding) would be attributed to deposition from turbidity currents. Underwater photographs show active mass flows (i.e. slides, slumps, grain flows, and debris flows) in modern canyons. Box cores taken from modem submarine canyons (e.g. La Jolla, California) and conventional cores and outcrops of ancient canyon-fill facies (Oua lboe, Pliocene, Nigeria and the Annot Sandstone, Eocene-Oligocene, SE France) contain deposits of both tidal processes and mass flows. This facies association in the rock record can be used as a criterion for recognizing submarine canyon settings. In a channel-mouth environment, deep-marine tidal deposits are likely to develop elongate bars that are aligned parallel to the channel axis within the channel, whereas turbidites are more likely to develop depositional lobes that are aligned perpendicular to channel axis. Turbidite depositional lobes are much larger than the channel width, whereas tidal sand bars are much smaller than the channel width. Therefore, the wrong use of a turbidite lobe model with sheet geometry in lieu of a tidal bar model with bar geometry will result in an unrealistic overestimation of sandstone reservoirs in deep-water exploration.

关键词：submarine canyons; tidal bottom currents; double mud layers; turbidity currents

来源出版物：Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2003, 20(5): 471-491

50 years of the turbidite paradigm (1950s-1990s): Deep-water processes and facies models: A critical perspective

Shanmugam, G

Abstract:Under the prevailing turbidite paradigm, the term ‘turbidite’ (i.e., deposits of turbidity currents with Newtonian rheology and turbulent state) is used very loosely and is commonly applied to deposits of debris flows with plastic rheology and laminar state. For example, because ‘high-density turbidity currents’ are defined on the basis of three different concepts (i.e., how density, grain size, and driving force), there are no consistent criteria for recognition of their deposits. As a result, deep-water massive sands of debris-flow origin are routinely misinterpreted as high-density turbidites. The concept of waxing flow as a type of turbidity current is problematic because waxing flows are defined on the basis of velocity, not on fluid rheology and flow state. The waxing-flow concept allows inversely graded sands to be misinterpreted as turbidites. Perhaps, the most problematic issue is the use of alluvial channel traction bed forms observed in flume experiments as the analog for the five divisions of the Bouma Sequence (i.e., classic turbidites deposited from suspension). This is because flume experiments were conducted under equilibrium flow conditions, whereas natural turbidity currents deposit sediment under disequilibrium waning flow conditions. This and other problems of deep-water processes and facies models are addressed in this paper from the author’s personal perspective. Classification of sediment-gravity flows into Newtonian flows (e.g., turbidity currents) and plastic flows (e.g., debris flows), based on fluid rheology and flow state, is a meaningful and practical approach. Although popular deepwater facies models are based on transport mechanisms, there are no standard criteria in the depositional record to reliably interpret transport mechanisms. According to existing turbidite-facies models, an ideal turbidite bed, which has normal grading, with gravel-to mud-size particles should contain a total of 16 divisions. However, no one has ever documented a complete turbidite bed with 16 divisions in modern or ancient deposits. Recognition of units deposited by deep-water bottom currents (also referred to as contour currents) is difficult. Traction structures are good indicators of bottom-current reworking, but distinguishing deposits of bottom currents from deposits of overbanking turbidity currents is difficult even though it has important implications for developing depositional models for hydrocarbon exploration and production. I consider sandy debris flows to be the dominant process responsible for transporting and depositing sands in the deep sea. Experiments on sandy debris flows suggest that low clay content (as little as 1%) is sufficient to provide the strength necessary for sandy debris flows. Deposits of experimental sandy debris hows are characterized by massive sand, sharp upper contacts, floating clasts, inverse grading, normal grading with clasts, and water-escape structures. As a counterpart to turbidite-dominated fan models suited for basinal settings, a slope model is proposed that is a debris-flow dominated setting with both nonchannelized and channelized systems. Contrary to popular belief, deposits of sandy debris flows can be thick, areally extensive, clean (i.e., mud poor), and excellent reservoirs. High-frequency flows tend to develop amalgamated debris-flow deposits with lateral connectivity and sheetlike geometry. Submarine-fan models with turbidite channels and lobes have controlled our thinking for nearly 35 years, but I consider that these models are obsolete. The suprafan lobe concept was influential in both sedimentologic and sequeace-stratigraphic circles because it provided a basis for constructing a general fan model and for linking mounded seismic facies with sheet-like turbidite sandstones. However, this concept recently was abandoned by its proponent, which has left the popular sequence- stratigraphic fan models with a shaky foundation. A paradigm shift is in order in the 21st century. This shift should involve the realization that thick deep-water massive sands are deposits of debris flows, not ‘high-density turbidites’. However, there are no standard vertical facies models that can be applied universally for either turbidites, contourites, or sandy debris flows. Science is a journey, whereas facies models terminate that journey and become the final destination.

关键词：turbidity currents; turbidite paradigm; sandy debris flows; submarine-fan models

来源出版物：Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2000, 17(2): 285-342

Marine magnetotellurics for petroleum exploration Part I: A sea-floor equipment system

Constable, SC; Orange, AS; Hoversten, GM; et al.

Induction in electrically conductive seawater attenuates the magnetotelluric (MT) fields and, coupled with a minimum around 1 Hz in the natural magnetic field spectrum, leads to a dramatic loss of electric and magnetic field power on the sea floor at periods shorter than 1000 s, For this reason the marine MT method traditionally has been used only at periods of 103to 105s to probe deep mantle structure; rarely does a sea-floor MT response extend to a 100-s period. To be useful for mapping continental shelf structure at depths relevant to petroleum exploration, however, MT measurements need to be made at periods between 1 and 1000 s. This can be accomplished using ac-coupled sensors, induction coils for the magnetic field, and an electric field amplifier developed for marine controlled-source applications. The electrically quiet sea floor allows the attenuated electric field to be amplified greatly before recording; in deep (l km) water, motional noise in magnetic field sensors appears not to be a problem. In shallower water, motional noise does degrade the magnetic measurement, but sea-floor magnetic records can be replaced by land recordings, producing an effective sea-surface MT response. Field trials of such equipment in l-km-deep water produced good-quality MT responses at periods of 3 to 1000 s; in shallower water, responses to a few hertz can be obtained. Using an autonomous sea-floor data logger developed at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, marine surveys of 50 to 100 sites are feasible.