Li Chenggui

Abstract: To foster ideal character is one of the objectives for Wang Yangming’s philosophy of mind. Inheriting pre-Qin Confucian discourses on the qualities of the junzi, Wang Yangming expanded its content and enriched its essential traits. The major components of a junzi’s character in Wang’s philosophy include such traits as sincerity and earnest application, independence and pursuing the Way of centrality, self-discipline for moral integrity, taking responsibility for the world, self-motivation and good conscience, and associating with others virtuously. These traits, interwoven and colored by the philosophy of mind, became the compositional pigments in and major themes of Wang Yangming’s analysis of moral character. He not only explored in theory the constitutive elements of healthy character but also gave the practical approach for fostering such character. His theory is instructive today for helping to build healthy character in modern society.

Keywords: Wang Yangming, philosophy of mind, junzi’s character, healthy character, development, contemporary signifi cance

Confucianism distinguishes among various levels of moral character,1Human character (renge 人格) is defi ned as an individual’s psychological inclinations and behavioral traits in their socially adaptive acts to interact with other people, with things and affairs, and with themselves. The term renge is used in this paper as a basically moral notion, in the sense of moral character with behavioral traits.among which thejunzi君子 (superior man, or exemplary person) is ranked second only to theshengren圣人 (sage). Confucius said, “I have not yet been able to meet a sage, but I would be satisfi ed to meet ajunzi” (Analects7:26). A word search fi nds 1,269 occurrences of the wordjunzi,as against 203 occurrences ofshengren,in pre-Qin Confucian classics, including theBook of Odes, theBook of Documents, theBook of Rites, theBook of Changes,Zuo’s Commentary onthe Spring and Autumn Annals, theAnalects, theMencius, and theXunzi. Excluding some instances that are not used in the context of moral assessment, the number of occurrences ofjunzistill far exceeds those ofshengren, showing that pre-Qin Confucianism put its focus on building the moral character of ajunzirather than ashengren. Already in pre-Qin times, then, discourse on thejunzi’s moral character was already highly developed and, it would seem, nearly complete. That being so, does it follow that the work of later Neo-Confucians on thejunzi’s character was merely redundant? The answer is no, for Wang Yangming 王阳明 (Wang Shouren 王守仁, 1472—1529) produced a distinctively thick description of thejunzi’s character in which he enriched and extended the work of earlier Confucians.

Sincerity and Earnest Application [Refer to page 26 for Chinese. Similarly hereinafter]

Sincerity and earnest application (chengxinwushi诚信务实) are the Confucian moral requirement forjunzipractical living in the world. As theDoctrine of the Meanstipulates, “Sincerity as the beginning and ending of all things, and nothing could be accomplished without sincerity. Therefore, ajunzitakes sincerity as the most valuable quality.” Earnest application means pragmatism in dealing with the world, aiming for concrete outcomes and effects. How did Wang Yangming represent these character traits in his philosophy of mind?

First, he advocated making one’s personal life sincere and devoid of any falsehood. To qualify as ajunzi, one must fi rst strive to be purely truthful, earnest, and free from error, and to do so one must make oneself sincere. As Wang said, “The process of investigating things to extend knowledge constitutes the effort to make oneself sincere. If one’s life is compared to a plant, sincerity would be its root, and investigation of things and extension of knowledge its soil and water.”2Wang Shouren 王守仁, “Letter to Wang Tianyu” [书王天宇卷], in vol. 8 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming [王阳明全集], eds. Wu Guang 吴光 et al. (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2011), 302.Without sincerity, one’s existence would be lifeless as a plant without roots, in which case all efforts to cultivate it and become ajunziwould be made in vain. How, then, should we make ourselves sincere?

If everybody devotes his energy and spirit entirely to the effort of becoming completely identifi ed with the Heavenly Principle (tianli天理), everyone will become self-contained and everyone will be perfectly realized. The great will become great and the small will become small, each being self-suffi cient without having to pursue external fame. This is the real and concrete task of manifesting the good and making oneself sincere.3Wang, “Instructions for Practical Living I” [传习录上], vol. 1 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 35—36. The English translation refers to Chan Wing-tsit, Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-Ming, 68—69, with some alterations.

Second, “sincerity and earnest application” implies unity of word and deed. As Wang Yangming said, “Obscuration of the Way (dao道) comes from making our words bright but not our lives. . . . The crux of the matter lies in sincerity.”4Wang, “Letter Written to Zhu Shouzhong” [与朱守忠], in vol. 5 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 201.Unity of word and deed allows no cheating or discontinuity but keeps one engaged in doing good all the time and in all things. “If as we come into contact with the thing to which the will is directed, we really do the utmost to do good and purge evil as those are known to our innate faculty, then everything will be investigated and what is known by our innate faculty will not be defi cient or obscured but will be extended to the utmost.”5Wang, “Inquiry on the Great Learning” [大学问], in vol. 26 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 1071. Chan, trans., 273.Otherwise, if one’s words are not fulfi lled by one’s deeds, how could one make oneself ajunzi?6Wang, “Second Letter in Reply to Lu Yuanjing” [《与陆原静》二], in vol. 5 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 210.

Third, “sincerity and earnest application” means dealing with actual affairs. Wang said,

When has the learning of the superior man departed from practical affairs and discarded discussions? However, whenever he is engaged in practical affairs or discussions, he insists on uniting knowledge and action. He is unlike those who devote themselves to merely talking and hearing as though that were knowledge and divide knowledge and action into two separate things as though they really could be itemized and take place one after the other.7Wang, “Instructions for Practical Living II” [传习录中], vol. 2 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 58. Chan, trans., 112.

Wang’s “extension of innate knowledge” is no empty preaching but must be substantiated with actual work. “When devotion to actuality increases a little, the devotion to [mere] names decreases to that same extent. If one devotes his mind entirely to actuality, he will have no mind to devote to [mere] names.”8Wang, “Instructions for Practical Living I,” 35. Chan, trans., 67.Being gauged with such caliber, only those who devote their mind entirely to actuality deserve the name ofjunzi.

It is clear that thejunziis required to make the personal life sincere and devoid of any falsehood, to suit word to deed and to be devoted to actual affairs. However, were it not for innate knowledge, neither sincerity nor earnest application could be fi rmly grounded, for innate knowledge is the source of this good character.

Independence and Pursuing the Way of Centrality [28]

Independence and pursuing the Way of centrality (duli daozhong独立道中) is a requirement for the Confucianjunziin personal conduct. This notion suggests neutrality, independence, holding to the middle (zhizhong执中), and centrality within the times (shizhong时中). Neutrality requires one to take an unbiased position in judgment; independence means freedom from external infl uences; holding to the middle implies taking one’s stand in the Way of centrality; and centrality within the times requires an adaptive response to one circumstance. Let us see how these traits are represented in Wang Yangming’s philosophy of mind.

First and foremost, ajunzimust be impartial. According to Wang, it is a bedrock truth that ajunziis fair-minded or holds to the middle: “What makes ajunziindependent iszhong中 (centrality or equilibrium) in the Way itself, which originated from the sage rulers and was embedded in people’s ways of life. It is impartial, fair, and square in its substance.”9Wang, “The Junzi Holds Impartially to the Middle” [君子中立而不倚], in Supplement to the Complete Works of Wang Yangming [王阳明全集补编], eds. Shu Jingnan 束景南 and Zha Minghao 查明昊 (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2016), 84.To be fair-minded and impartial, one must be free from the temptations of lust, fame, vanity, or material benefi t, so that the mind rests unstirred. However, the mind is destined to be stirred by external things. And in that case, it must be properly adjusted or corrected. The soft-minded should be consolidated with hardness, the tender-minded must be tempered with fi rmness, and the extravagant with thriftiness. These measures of correction must be used in proper measure, to avoid excess or overdoing. To prevent over-correction and maladjustment, one must restrain oneself by overcoming selfi sh desires. Then the job will neither be overdone nor underdone.10Wang, “Manuscript Edition of ‘Jiaoting Shuo’” [矫亭说原稿], in Supplement to the Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 347.In any event, thejunzimust hold and adhere to the middle, and as long as the mind conforms to the principle (li理), one’s acts will be kept free from bias or partiality.

Second, keeping independent and pursuing the Way of centrality should aim at fi tting in with one’s time and place as appropriate. Holding to the middle in pre-Qin Confucianism meant doing the right thing at the right time, and Wang Yangming developed the doctrine further, emphasizing that holding and adhering to the middle meant not some absolute that could be applied with no sensitivity to circumstance a sort of timeliness, fi tting one’s actions to the occasion. Wang’s interpretation of holding to the middle is based on the actual situation in the time and place of the affair, which has to be dealt with according to the specifi c conditions. Therefore, what results from holding to the middle is not that one hangs onto a fi xed rule but practices a principle while the application depends on the situation.11Wang, “The Junzi Holds Impartially to the Middle,” 84.Whether or not an act of thejunziis in conformity with equilibrium or centrality is to be judged by whether it is rightfully appropriate to the circumstance, not on even-handedness or neutrality of position. When Wang said that ajunzi“independently stands in the middle of the Way,”12Ibid.he referred to an act that is justly appropriate and executed to the right degree. “Centralityis nothing but the Heavenly Principle; it is the great transformation. It transforms according to the times. How can one hold it fast? One must act according to the circumstance, for it is diffi cult to codify it in advance as a rule.”13Wang, “Instructions for Practical Living I,” 21—22. Chan, trans., 42—43.Therefore to hold to the middle does not imply holding to some one thing, as centrality entails adapting to specifi c conditions, and by the Heavenly Principle is meant leaving room for exigencies of circumstance.

Third, “independence and pursuing the Way of centrality” means being candid and upright. Living in this world, one is surrounded by temptations. If one does not resist temptations and falls prey to them, one will never make ajunzi, according to Wang Yangming.

Amid the varied affairs of the world taking place around me, I would hardly be able to cope with them if I could not take my stand on guard but only hold an idea of centrality in my mind. For, as I held my position with one thing I would lose it with another; or standing in front of one I would yet fall down in another. Though I can hold myself in peace while nothing is happening, I will be taken by surprise the moment I am off guard. In that case, the centrality that I have believed I was holding to will be gone in an instant. Therefore, it is such steadfastness to remain in centrality but never to lean or yield, that tests the mettle of ajunziwith the most courageous fortitude under heaven.14Wang, “The Junzi Holds Impartially to the Middle,” 84.

Ajunzimust be firm enough to resist all sorts of temptations in the world. To remain unperturbed by the temptations of fame, vanity, or material gains illustrates the fortitude and wisdom of ajunzi. Wang Yangming said,

Melodious voices and attractive colors are beautiful in themselves, but centrality in our minds should not be blinded by their beauty; materials and profits are in themselves riches, but our centrality should not be moved by their presence. If the faculty of sifting is wrongly applied, our thinking should not be biased by its outcome; if the function o f judgment is inappropriately executed, prejudice should not be allowed to affect the impartiality of our mind.15Ibid., 85.

Important as they are, the results of discrimination and judgment could be abandoned if they adversely affect independence and pursuing the Way of centrality.

The corollary is that if centrality is maintained in the mind, first, good judgment can be made on precepts or principles, never to be lured by craftiness; then, acting on good judgment can keep one on the correct path and prevent straying; and finally, the moral power of a fair mind can overcome any selfi sh desire that may seduce it into folly. To keep independence and pursue the Way of centrality, then, one must possess three virtues, namely the abilities to judge, to act, and to abide by moral codes. All this requires overcoming selfi sh desire in the first place, and that is done by virtue of one’s innate knowledge. Therefore, innate knowledge is the source of the independent and impartial mind in pursuing the Way of centrality.

Self-Discipline for Moral Integrity [30]

Self-discipline for moral integrity (zichi jieyi自持节义) is a requirement for the Confucianjunzito deal with the relationship between body and soul. Whenjunzifi nd themselves in confl ict between the body and soul, they choose moral integrity over the body. As Confucius said, “The determined scholar and the man of virtue will not seek to live at the expense of injuring their virtue. They will even sacrifi ce their lives to complete their virtue” (Analects15:9). Thejunziof great character abide in self-discipline for moral integrity to defend their human dignity and lofty ideals even at the risk of their lives. How did Wang Yangming represent this trait of good character in his philosophy?

First, it is a mental state excited by special circumstances. As Wang Yangming said,The integrity of an uprightjunzimay also be stimulated by his misfortune. As ajunzipreserves his integrity by tacit virtue, how could he condescend to show it externally with self-claim? I have chosen to profess my opinions, for I see the country suff ering incurable diseases. Thejunziis sometimes obliged to do so, when by mischance he falls into an impasse and cannot resign himself to silence or submission. Stimulated and energized by his uprightness, he grows all the more outspoken when put under pressure, the harder after being tempered with fi re, the fi rmer when he is forced to hold his ground, and all the loftier if he attains his aims. When this happens, there will be men of great virtue and great courage, who rise to the occasion in splendid height over their peers and contemporaries.16Wang, “A Comment on Scholar Revealing His Integrity in Hardship” [士穷见节义论], in Supplement to the Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 110.

In this sense,junzishow righteousness and integrity only in adverse circumstances. They are unfortunate because the Way that they follow is blocked in their times, unavailable either from instruction or through practice.Junzifeel it their duty to instruct and to practice the Way. Hitting an impasse,junziwould neither surrender aspirations nor yield to the obstruction, and the desperate situation could only arouse in them a vast, fl owing passion.

Second, self-discipline for moral integrity makes thejunziinvulnerable to threats, fame, or profi t. Wang Yangming talked of the disposition ofjunzi, who never takes to heart and even despises wealth, power, profi t, and titles:

Now, the substance of innate knowledge is by nature characterized by quick apprehension, clear discernment, far-reaching intelligence, and all-embracing knowledge. It is magnanimous, generous, benign, and mild; it is impulsive, energetic, firm, and enduring. . . . Thus, every scholar who maintains the path (truth) has washed out the dust from his eyes and pulled out the plugs from his ears, in these matters which we have mentioned. He considers his happening upon wealth, honor, poverty, humble position, attainment, loss, love, and aversion, as the passing back and forth of the whirlwind and the fl oating clouds, which undergo continual changes while the nature of heaven and earth remains constantly great and unlimited.17Wang, “Reply to Nan Yuanshan” [答南元善], in vol. 6 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 235. The English translation follows Frederick G. Henke, 455—457, with some alterations.

Xi Shu 席书 (1461—1527), one of Wang’s friends, was a noble person who paid no heed to his own safety, much less to fame and profi t. In Wang’s view, moral integrity is crystallized by good human nature, free from selfi sh desire, and keenly concerned by social problems. It is a quality that forms a oneness with heaven and earth and catches the brilliance from its nature.

Third, self-discipline and restraint enablesjunzito sacrifi ce their lives for the sake of moral integrity. According to Wang Yangming,

To live or to die, to stay or to go into exile, these are nothing to be exchanged for the passion ofjunzi. . . . That is why there are men who stay staunch against the current as well as those who drift with the waves; there are men who try to hold the wind like unyielding blades of grass as well as those who succumb to it; there are men who show their true quality like gold after being tempered in fi re as well as those who are shattered with a blow or brittle with heat.18Wang, “A Comment on Scholar Revealing His Integrity in Hardship,” 111.

Only those who would risk their lives for a moral cause become exemplary persons of noble character. A noble person is the product of exceptional circumstances. That is why Wang Yangming said:

When ajunzipresents himself by virtue of his moral character, it is a misfortune not only of thejunzi, but also a distress of the world of his time. Be that as it may, the noble character of thejunzishould be cherished to correct the ethos of scholars and offi cials. It is the Way to maintain social morality and ethics. It is nothing to be taken lightly at all!19Ibid., 112.

If the country is in prosperity and the customs of the people are simple and upright, there is no need for moral preaching. However, for the same reason, there is defi nitely good reason to do so for the state and for society.

Without innate knowledge, there would be no way for moral sense to arise or to exert any infl uence.

Thus the ears could not be used to listen to anything were it not for the intuitive faculty. How could it be apprehended? The eyes could not be used to look at anything were it not for the intuitive faculty. How could it be clearly discerned? The mind could not be used in deliberating on and realizing anything were it not for the intuitive faculty. How could there be any far-reaching intelligence and all-embracing knowledge? Moreover, how could there be any magnanimity, generosity, benignity, and mildness if there were no innate knowledge? How could there be impulsiveness, energy, fi rmness, and endurance? How could there be self-control, gravity, maintenance of centrality, and correctness? How could one say of any individual, “All-embracing is he and vast, deep and active as a fountain, sending forth his virtues in their due season?”20Wang, “In Reply to Nan Yuanshan,” 235. Henke, trans., 456.

Therefore, innate knowledge is the root and origin for thejunzito restrain themselves and preserve their moral integrity.

Taking Responsibility for the World [32]

A Confucianjunziis required to take active part in world affairs and to give priority to public interest over private gain, that is to say, to take responsibility for the world (shen ren tianxia身任天下). “Extinguish all selfi sh aims by your public feeling, and the people will have confi dence in you, and be gladly obedient,” exhorts theBook of History.21The English translation of the Book of History is based on James Legge’s version, with some alterations.To make it one’s own duty to take charge of the world’s affairs and to sacrifi ce one’s private interest for public benefit, this is the basic Confucian requirement for ajunzi. How did Wang Yangming represent this characteristic in his philosophy?

First, one should put the interests of all people in mind and take one’s responsibility. Ajunzimust “shoulder any calamity under heaven,”22Wang, “Second Letter to Yang Yiqing” [寄杨邃庵阁老二], in vol. 20 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 904.because it is in the disposition ofjunzinot to shun an unpreventable misfortune. As Wang Yangming saw it, only by one’s bravely assuming a responsibility that may potentially be disastrous to oneself can the disaster be stopped from falling onto all the people. He said,

Ifjunziof the world merely devote their efforts to extending their innate knowledge they will naturally share with all a universal sense of right and wrong, share their likes and dislikes, regard other people as their own persons, regard the people of other countries as their own family, and look upon Heaven, Earth, and all things as one body. When this is done, even if we wanted anarchy in the world, it would not be possible.23Wang, “Instructions for Practical Living II,” 79—80. Chan, trans., 167.

Second, to take responsibility for the world, one needs to place a higher priority on the national interest than on duty to one’s parents and family. Though Confucianism takes a unitary view of loyalty to the monarch and fi lial piety to parents, regarding them as virtues of the same nature, the former virtue takes priority over the latter if and when they fall into confl ict. This is a matter of course for ajunzi. Wang Yangming himself was a fi lial son. He had sought permission more than once to return home to look after his aged grandmother and ailing father and was finally allowed a transfer to fight bandits in Fujian, which was closer to his family in Zhejiang. Nevertheless, he stopped mid-way after hearing of Prince of Ning Zhu Chenhao’s 朱宸濠 (1477—1521) treasonous plot and sent a memorial asking to go to Jiangxi at once, saying, “What happens in Jiangxi is a great threat to the empire, and as a subject of the state I have no reason to leave it alone.”24Wang, “Memorial Requesting Permission to Attend Funeral by Way of Convenience” [乞便道省葬疏], in vol. 12 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 437.In his mind, state interest was far greater than that of the family or of one’s own. A capable person with little loyalty to the state could only serve the private interest of his family, but one who stays loyal to the state will rise to the occasion when the nation and people are in need.

Third, taking responsibility for the world requires self-conquest and self-denial. Wang Yangming said, “Thejunzitakes to learning so as to perfect his own virtue. For his own perfection, one must master and conquer oneself, and with that, eradicate the self. One who conquers oneself is selfl ess.”25Wang, “Reply to Wang Jiaxiu’s Letter for Instruction” [书王嘉秀请益卷], in vol. 8 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 303.In the words of Confucius, “The man of perfect virtue, wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others” (Analects, 6:30). To engage in learning,junzimust put behind their minds any selfish desire or self-interest and instead harbor a sense of a common self with Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things as one body. Only a person of such noble mind can take responsibility for the world.26Wang, “Inquiry on the Great Learning,” 1066—1067.

A mind that cherishes the people and assumes responsibility for them must extend innate knowledge, for the extension of innate knowledge enables one to put the nation and state before one’s family; without it, one is unable to conquer selfish desire or to devote oneself to public interest. To sum up, it is the innate moral knowledge that drives one to take responsibility for the world.

Self-Motivation and Good Conscience [35]

Confucianism requires thejunzito be self-motivated and to resort to their good conscience (zi kuai qi xin自快其心) with respects to praise and criticism or loss and gain. Ajunzimust learn a mentality that is happier with criticism than with praise, for criticism helps to advance one’s virtue. Conscience enables one to fi nd knowledge, satisfaction and joyfulness in one’s inner mind, to remain unaffected by loss or gain, unmoved by external things, and impervious to temptation. How did Wang Yangming represent self-motivation and good conscience in his philosophy?

First, Wang Yangming taught that one should do good by following one’s conscience only. According to Confucians, people ought to do good things out of their will, only in order to satisfy their consciences and not to hear praise from others. Wang expressed full approval for this virtue, saying: “When ajunzidoes something good, he feels no qualms or misgivings in the face of gods of Heaven and spirits of Earth. . . . That is ‘fi nding oneself in no situation in which one is not at ease with himself.’ What greater delight is there?”27Wang, “Doing Good Is the Greatest Delight” [为善最乐文], in vol. 24 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 1019.Therefore, the most important thing in life is to exert the mind to the utmost.

The learning of ajunziconsists in exerting one’s mind to the utmost. Therefore, when a son attends to the care of his parents, he does it wholeheartedly without even knowing his fulfi llment of fi lial duty; when a minister renders service to his monarch, he does so with all his mind but is unaware of his loyalty. . . . Unless one exerts oneself in doing anything, he is deceiving his own mind; only after one feels the mind exerted does it feel joyous in itself.28Wang, “Foreword to the ‘Anthology of Mengcha Travels’” [题梦槎奇游诗卷], in vol. 24 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 1018.

Therefore ajunzihas no need to seek others’ trust or win their acknowledgment.

Second, “self-motivation and good conscience” enablejunzito keep their minds unperturbed by either criticism or praise. Confucians, who seek spiritual solace and delight in their minds, are rather nonchalant about fame or blame, honor or opprobrium, though they also encourage people to establish virtue, establish words, and establish achievements. Wang Yangming carried forward the notion and expanded it.

The learning of the superior man consists merely in self-realization. When fl attery, slander, glory, and humiliation are inevitable, one is not to be perturbed by them at all, but take them as aids to hone and grind one’s character. So that there is no circumstance where ajunzidoes not gain self-realization; there is no affair that he does not acquire learning from. Contrarily, if one is only happy to hear praise but sad to be criticized, he will be all day long worried by these external opinions, and how could he become ajunzi?29Wang, “Letter in Reply to a Friend” [答友人], in vol. 6 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 231.

It can be seen that “self-motivation and good conscience” refl ect the inherent spirit of Wang Yangming’s life experience as well as his philosophy of mind.

Third, “self-motivation and good conscience” protectjunzifrom others’ pestering words and opinions. As there are individuals of high and low character and insight, it is impossible to do anything that will satisfy everyone, wherefore that misinterpretation and misunderstanding are inevitable. Confucians see great virtue in staying consistent with one’s beliefs, for can anyone be called ajunziwho fl ip-fl ops easily in accommodation to competing opinions? Wang Yangming’s own doctrines of the mind, though popular with hosts of his adherents, had been scorned by his critics as crypto-Buddhist heterodoxy. He responded that “junziof today may suspect my words to be Buddhist heresy, or preached deliberately to diff er from orthodoxy. I, however, would not pretend to be ignorant of their contention and to deceive myself as well as others.”30Wang, “Letter to Wang Tianyu,” 302.Still he turned to himself in order to seek the highest good. He believed that ajunzineed not seek approval from the public but need only have faith in his or her own mind. Without confi dence in oneself, how can one convince others? In the face of doubts and contention, the only thing that one can and ought to do is adhere to one’s own mind, and in time the skeptics will confess to their ignorance and fallacy.31Wang, “Letter in Reply to a Friend,” 231—232.

After all, it is innate moral knowledge that enablesjunzito be self-motivated and consult their conscience. As Wang Yangming said,

What the superior man means by being self-poised and careful is not being under the infl uence of terror, sorrow, and distress but by being cautious with reference to what is unseen and apprehensive with reference to what is unheard. The saying of the superior man regarding freedom does not carry with it the connotation of the swaggering and dissipation implied in giving rein to the seven passions and in acting unscrupulously. It means that the mind is not burdened by desire and that in no situation does the individual not behave like himself. By its very nature the mind embodies Heavenly Principle; and the clear, intelligent realization of Heavenly Principle is what is meant by innate knowledge.32Wang, “Letter in Reply to Shu Guoyong” [答舒国用], in vol. 5 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 212. Henke, trans., 260.

Innate knowledge is the source and powerhouse for all goodness. With firm belief in moral knowledge of the mind, why should one care about external criticism, prejudice or humiliation?

Associating with Others Virtuously [38]

The Confucianjunziis required to associate with others virtuously (jiaojie yi de交接以德). When interacting with others, one must put higher priority on virtue, which entails such personal qualities as ritual propriety, kindheartedness, equality of status, and holding oneself in due modesty. There is defi nitively some principle for associating with others, so what did Wang Yangming say about it?

First, one ought to meet others with ritual propriety. Wang took propriety as the basic mode for ajunzi’s associations. Ritual propriety regulates order, and the presence or absence of propriety signifi es personal merit or weakness. Music follows from harmony, and so the propriety of music is diagnostic of personal character. Therefore ajunzifollows and values the way of rites and music in associating with others. Wang Yangming thought that nothing is more important in the world than the Way or more valuable than virtues.33Wang, “Letter in Reply to Chu Chaixu” [答储柴墟], in vol. 21 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 893—894.Junzimake friends only by virtue of their righteous conduct and moral quality, without regard to age or rank. Lack of virtue precludes any need of friendship. In a word, ritual propriety serves for the instrument, and virtue the reason, for making associations.

Second, one ought to be kindhearted when interacting with others.Kindheartedness brings one reputation, kind words bring one friendship, and good deeds bring opportunities. Wang Yangming was deeply convinced of this principle and ranked kindheartedness as the fi rst rule. He said,

Even though reproach or criticism in kindness is felt to be obligatory between friends, one must do it in good will and with tact of wording. One must do it in such a way that one’s good will is appreciated, that one’s words are readily accepted, one’s advice is preferable, one’s proposal is practicable, so that the advisee is persuaded but does not feel off ended. That is truly the art of reproaching to urge virtuous actions.34Wang, “Urging Virtuous Action by Reproof” [责善], in vol. 26 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 1074.

Of particular note is that Wang Yangming practiced what he taught. There are techniques for this. First, one must be tolerant of complaints that arise from others’ misunderstanding. The second is to keep praising others for their real progress. Even if one’s kindly words are received with resentment, one must continue to treat the other with sincerity of good will. This is what is expected of a truejunzi. A bad mouth instead of good words will bring trouble, not friendship. It is understandable why Wang Yangming was followed by so many disciples and adherents, who were themselves men of marvelous virtue and abilities.

Third, one ought to hold oneself in due modesty. In personal associations, as Wang taught, one should treat the other with modesty or at least equality, with no sign of condescension or arrogance. If one fails to make friends with someone as one hopes, it must be one’s own fault, and serious self-refl ection must be undertaken with help from others. Younger scholars must not take themselves as others’ teacher but should interact with them on equal footing. Only point to reasons and let the interlocutors advance themselves.35Wang, “In Reply to Chu Chaixu,” 895.Equality of respect is best shown by lowering one’s own standing. “Whenever you meet someone, you should come in a receptive attitude and with a yielding purpose, esteeming and respecting one another. Friends should consider mutual complaisance and lowliness as advantageous.”36Wang, “Instruction Written in the Zhongtiange in Order to Encourage All Students” [书中天阁勉诸生], in vol. 8 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 310—311. Henke, trans., 101.By tolerance and sincerity, one can win others’ trust without eloquent words when disagreements arise.

In short, Wang Yangming’s principle for personal association centers on ritual propriety, kindheartedness, equality, and modesty, which are fundamentally based on innate knowledge. If innate knowledge is not taken into consideration with human feelings and practical affairs but is understood as something separate, then it will hardly be possible to make good associations or friendships. Therefore, one must extend innate knowledge and keep the mind sincere. As Wang Yangming said, “That is why ajunzimust fi rst take vigilance in solitude if he wishes to be vigilant of himself when keeping company with others”;37Wang, “A Junzi Takes Vigilance over Himself When Keeping Company with Others” [君子慎其所以与人者], in vol. 22 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 940.“It is because the original substance of innate knowledge consists in what is not seen or heard and the effort to extend innate knowledge consists in the mind’s being cautious and apprehensive.”38Wang, “Instructions for Practical Living III” [传习录下], in vol. 3 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 139.Without innate knowledge, it would be building a castle in the sand to try to relate to others virtuously.

Conclusion [41]

Based upon Wang Yangming’s conception and explanation of thejunzi’s character, we can draw several conclusions.

Wang’s Doctrine Was a Faithful Continuation of Traditional Pre-Qin Confucian Descriptions of Junzi [41]

First, Wang subscribed to pre-Qin Confucian discourse on the virtue that characterized ajunzi. Second, his doctrine put emphasis on the practical features of thejunzi’s character as explained by pre-Qin Confucianism. Third, he went on to establish his ideas about thejunzi’s virtues on the pre-Qin teachings. It is worth noting that his ideal character ofjunzilargely overlaps with that of a sage, so that the breadth of thejunzi’s character as he understands it is unlimited.

Wang Gave an Interconnected Account of the Elemental Qualities that Constitute the Junzi’s Character [42]

“Sincerity and earnest application” are the makings ofjunziin worldly life; “independence and pursuing the Way of centrality” makejunziexcel in performing their duties and obligations; “self-discipline for moral integrity” reveals their virtuous choices in matters pertaining to the relationship of spirit and fl esh; “taking responsibility for the world” shows their attitude toward the relative weight given to public and private interests; “self-motivation and good conscience” exhibitjunzi’s stance toward honor and disgrace; “associating with others virtuously” displays their style in making friends and associations. These qualities or personal virtues, which glow with the brilliance of an exemplary human character, are coherent and internally consistent. They are inherently related and mutually supportive.

As disparate qualities in themselves, they complement one another and form an integrated character. So, they interconnect in their content.

As they perform diff erent functions of human virtue, each of them is complementary to and supportive of the rest, thus producing an incremental and amplifying effect. “Sincerity and earnest application” and “independence and pursuing the Way of centrality” are supportive of each other; “self-discipline for moral integrity” and “taking responsibility for the world” are supportive of each other; and “sincerity and earnest application” and “associating with others virtuously” are also conducive to each other. So, these qualities are functionally complementary and catalytic to each other.

Wang’s exposition of the relatedness between traits of ajunzicharacter theoretically consolidated the content of Confucian notions of exemplary character, which comprise particular but integrated traits of a common virtue. On the practical side, this suggests the importance of fostering the elemental traits of ajunzi, for these specifi c virtues are instrumental and conducive to the growth of other virtues that integrate to form thejunzi’s character.

Wang Yangming’s Expositions on the Junzi ’s Character Are Representative of His Philosophy of Mind [42]

The most impressive feature of Wang’s philosophy of mind is its immanentist view of human virtues, that is, that goodness resides inside the mind and there is no principle, no affair, no goodness to be found outside the mind. Each of this is self-sufficient and takes innate knowledge or the Heavenly Principle as its yardstick. Is Wang Yangming’s defi nition ofjunzicharacter consistent with his philosophy? Yes.

First, thejunzi’s character is capable of self-control owing to his or her independence and self-mastery. All the elemental traits ofjunziexhibit this self-controlling capacity. For instance, “sincerity and earnest application” are based on a person’s sincerity and selfrealization; “independence and pursuing the Way of centrality” rely on one’s moderation and self-control; “self-discipline for moral integrity” is semantically self-evident here and needs no explanation; “taking responsibility for the world” counts on one’s self-confi dence; “self-motivation and good conscience” are preconditioned by the mind’s self-sufficiency for its own happiness; and “associating with others virtuously” needs such spontaneous goodness from the inner mind to be externally attractive. It can be seen that Wang Yangming’s exposition of thejunzi’s noble character features a deep-seated self-mastery and autonomy.

Second, autonomy of mind ensures the immanent happiness of the person of noble character. “Sincerity and earnest application” require people to be sincere to their mind and practical in affairs, and only afterward can they be free from mistakes. “Independence and pursuing the Way of centrality” allow no abstraction or bias in the mind.Junziwho take responsibility for the world must devote themselves to the public welfare and eliminate selfi sh desires. Who is capable of this without a mind that is self-suffi ciently happy? As for “self-discipline for moral integrity,” one must never fear adversity or look for power and wealth. Without a spirit of self-sacrifice, who can expect to be ajunzi? “Self-motivation and good conscience” enable thejunzito fi nd happiness in an autonomy of mind that is immune from external temptations or threats. “Associating with others virtuously” is the same, in which one cannot win friendship or popularity without it. Autonomy is thus a prominent hallmark of Wang Yangming’s doctrine.

Third, self-confi dence awaits ajunziwho has fruitfully extended innate knowledge. All the above traits of a noble character are lit by the glow from one’s innate knowledge. Wang Yangming said,

Ancientjunzi, who knew the importance of being cautious with what is not seen and apprehensive of what is not heard, never dared to deviate from their innate knowledge, and that is why they were able to make great advances in learning. If the great foundation is established, the universal Way will be in operation. That is the condition where “heaven and earth attain their proper order and all things will fl ourish.” Is there any diffi culty in getting its resources anyway?39Wang, “On Self-Acquisition” [自得斋说], in vol. 7 of Complete Works, 296.

Therefore, innate knowledge is the source of all the virtues that comprise ajunzi’s character, and it provides the regimen and recipe for nourishing that character. Therefore ajunzimust extend innate knowledge.

Since Wang Yangming’s conception of thejunzi’s character is based on self-mastery by the autonomous mind, aimed at self-satisfaction, driven by innate knowledge, and approached by the extension of it, it is typical of his idealistic philosophy of mind. In that sense, it is a conceptual fusion of traditional Confucian notions of the character of ajunzion the one hand and Wang’s own doctrine of mind on the other. Being colored by his philosophy of mind, Wang’s ideas about thejunzi’s character are enriched by his idea that innate knowledge is the basis of that noble character. In Wang’s hands, this becomes a new concept, transformed by its incorporation into his philosophy of mind. In terms of practice, it gives the direction for realizing one’s noble character, namely, through self-mastery, selfsatisfaction, and self-confi dence in innate knowledge.

Wang Yangming’s Notion of the Junzi’s Character Entails Striving to Develop a Healthy Personality [43]

Generally speaking, a healthy character comprises various good qualities or virtues in an individual, ranging from their psychological to physiological to mental robustness. The health of a person is indicated by their psychological, physiological, and mental robustness as required of ajunzi. Judging by this standard, Wang Yangming’s exposition on thejunzi’s character could tentatively be used to improve people’s mental health.

There are two reasons for this. First, Wang’s exposition of thejunzi’s character fits these mental indicators. Though theoretically idealistic, all the traits of ajunzi’s character are practically attainable, never beyond the grasp of common people and far from upsetting, frustrating, or forbidding. Extending innate knowledge is the source of thejunzi’s character. As Wang said, “If innate knowledge can be extended, the mind will attain what is proper. . . . All those who ‘scheme to get what is beyond their strength and force their intellectual faculty to know what it is incapable of’ cannot be considered as extending their innate knowledge.”40Wang, “Instructions for Practical Living II,” 82. Chan, trans., 153.According to this description, the noble character of thejunziis not anything that lies beyond our capabilities.

Second, thejunzi’s character as Wang described it constitutes the bulk of his genealogy of the ideal personality. Though he seldom made distinctions between a noblejunziand a sage, he was quite aware that they were diff erent. He called on people to extend their innate knowledge and become sages, but he was pragmatic enough to see them trying to be ajunzifi rst of all. He further said,

Generally speaking, the entireDoctrine of the Meantalks about the cultivation of the Way. Therefore when it later talks about the superior man, about Yan Hui 颜回 (521—481 BCE), and about Zilu 子路 (542—480 BCE), it deals with those who could cultivate the Way. When it talks about the inferior man, about those who are wise or stupid, worthy or unworthy, and about the common folk, it deals with those who are unable to cultivate the Way. And aside from these, when it talks about Shun 舜, King Wen of Zhou, Duke Zhou, Confucius, and those who are perfectly sincere and perfectly sagely, it deals with sages who can naturally cultivate the Way.41Wang, “Instructions for Practical Living III,” 111. Chan, trans., 203.

Clearly, Wang diff erentiated between ajunziand a sage. He pinned his hope on thejunzi, who is superior to the common person but inferior to the sage, with a character in the middle that can be improved or degraded. That is why he put thejunziin the middle part of his genealogy of character, for it best served his purposes.

Third, thejunzi’s character as Wang Yangming theorized it is set dynamically in upward mobility. He certainly knew that sages are rarely seen, but a person with the character of ajunzi, though possessing excellent traits, is not an exceptionally endowed individual who was born to know and can practice these virtues naturally and easily. He must keep making efforts to do what he learns with ever more practiced ease. Moreover, even ajunziis prone to error. Wang Yangming said,

Ajunziwho lives among petty men would never reconcile himself to their ways. If he were unfortunately injured in extreme disadvantage, he would no alternative but to make himself comfortable with the situation. If his reaction were not in perfect accordance with the Way, or cynical or outrageous in any manner, it would not be helpful at all but only excite bitterness and resentment. That would be his own fault as ajunzi.42Wang, “Letter Written to Hu Bozhong” [与胡伯忠], in vol. 4 of Complete Works, 180.

So thejunzimust take pains to cultivate his character. To attain and maintain ajunzi’scharacter, it is not possible to be too strict in self-reproach and self-cultivation.43Wang, “To Yunqing” [寄云卿], in Supplement to the Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 147—148.Obviously, ajunzi’s character in Wang Yangming’s understanding is dynamic and progressing toward sageness. It is a healthy mental state that keeps moving upward within the limits of human psychology, physiology, and mentality.

The theoretical significance of Wang’s exposition is his succession to the Confucian notion of ajunzi’s character that takes both idealism and realism into consideration by distinguishing diff erent levels of character and exploring their health. It is a clue for us to fi nd and establish the best character that deserves our effort. In terms of practice, Wang Yangming noted positive and effective ways to foster healthy character. This is of tremendous realistic signifi cance at present, particularly so when for a time it was the trend for philosophers in our country to set vainly lofty and impracticable standards for character-building.

To summarize, by faithfully inheriting pre-Qin Confucian ideas about thejunzi’scharacter, Wang Yangming expanded their content and extended them in a way unique to his philosophy. He has left a landmark legacy in the history of Chinese thought on thejunzi’scharacter.

Bibliography for Cited Translations

Chan, Wing-tsit, trans. and comp.A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969.

——, trans.Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-Ming. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.

Henke, Frederick Goodrich, trans.The Philosophy of Wang Yang-Ming. London: Open Court Publishing, 1916.

Legge, James, trans.Shang Shu. https://ctext.org/shang-shu/ens, accessed May 20, 2022.