A Look at the Multiethnic Exchanges and Integration through the Newly Unearthed Tubo Tombs on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

HUO Wei

Abstract:In recent years，new tombs of the Tubo period have been unearthed by archaeologists on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau，with different grades and shapes，reflecting very rich cultural connotations.The article mainly analyzes a batch of tombs，as well as the tomb system and customs，of the Tubo period newly unearthed on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.From these tombs，we can see the intertwining and integrating relation between the local cultural factors of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the cultural factors from the Central Plains and Hexi regions，which reflects several historical fragments of the communication and integration of different ethnic groups living here in the 7—9 centuries and provides important materials for understanding the burial system and customs during the Tubo period.

Keywords:Qinghai-Tibet Plateau； Archaeology； Tubo tombs； Ethnic contact communication and fusion；Plateau Silk Road

Buddhist Sutras Carved on Stone in the Eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and the Interactions between Han and Tibetan Buddhism during the Tubo Period

ZHANG Chang-hong

Abstract:Since the 1980s，several Buddhist rock carvings of images combined with old Tibetan inscriptions dated to the Tubo period have been found in Chamdo of Tibet Autonomous Region，and in Yushu，Qinghai Province.In this paper，we sorted out these rock carved sutras and discovered that they belong to the Kun du[or:tu]bzang po spyodpavismon lam gyirgyal po，the rNam par snangmdzadvkhor dang bcas pa la bstod pa，the Tshedpag du myedpavimdosde and the vPhags pa bcomldanvdas ma shesrabgyipharol du phyinpavisnying po.These sutras were already translated into Tibetan during the Tubo period and similar Tibetan and Chinese translations can be found in both Tibetan and Han Buddhist canons and old Dunhuang documents.According to the inscription，the date of the Buddhist rock carvings in Chamdo and Yushu can be placed in the reign of btsan po Khrildesrongbtsan，that is，sometime in the beginning of the ninth century.Upon closer inspection of these rock carvings，we argue that they were the product of the implementation of Buddhist politics by the Tibetan royal court and reflect the close interaction and intimate relationship between Han and Tibetan Buddhism during the Tubo period.

Keywords:The eastern Qinghai-Tibetan plateau；Old Tibetan inscriptions；Tuboperiod；Han and Tibetan Buddhism

A Preliminary Study on the Gilded Silver Crown Excavated from Tomb No.1 in Wulanquangou，Qinghai

LI Shuai，ZHU Ming

Abstract:The gilded silver crown excavated from tomb No.1 in Wulanquangou reveals a type of crown that existed in the northeast of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in the Sui and Tang Dynasties.This kind of crown style should be based on local cultural traditions and mixed with the crystallization of multiple cultures including the Central Plains，the northern grassland and Central Asia.The concept of gold and silver crown may come from the tradition of northern grassland culture，which has many similarities with the later Khitan crown.The tradition of square crowns and the practice of hanging beads in front of crowns should be influenced by the Central Plains.The images of dragons，phoenixes and lions on the crown should have special meanings.The above three animals have different orientations on the crown，which may reflect the crown owner's differential understanding to the meaning of those animals，their background culture and concepts.The gemstones on the crown are equally diverse，reflecting the prosperity and development of the Plateau Silk Road in the Han and Tang Dynasties.From the unearthed state and combined with the literature，the crown may be used as an“alternative to dress”in the funeral ceremony for the soul of the tomb owner to use in the post-mortem world.Through the study of the crown，we can not only deepen our understanding of the ancient crown system of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau，but also see the contacts and exchange of various ethnic groups in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

Keywords:Gilded silver crown；Tomb No.1 in Wulanquangou；Crown style；Qinghai-Tibet Plateau；Cultural integration

rLhya:A Study on the Title of the Tribal Leaders in West Tibet during the Early period of Tubo

Tshe-brtan bKra-shis，bSod-nams Tshe-brtan

Abstract:According to the ancient Tibetan historical documents unearthed in Dunhuang and the Western Regions，before the Tibetan Plateau was unified by the bTsan-po Khri-srong-btsan(617—649)，other chiefs of tribes differing from the Yalong spurgyal tribe in political form，economic structure and cultural customs，all enjoyed the unique name of their own tribes.Khri-ma-lod(? —712)，in the early days of her administration behind a screen，confiscated the residence of Zhangzhung's lord，therefore as the title of the head of the tribes in Western Tibet，rlhya，did not appear in the subsequent Tubo political system.At the beginning of the 11th century AD，the so-called Zhangzhung word“rlhya”，appeared in various Bon books as the counterpart of Tibetan “rje”(refers to the king).By analyzing the phonetic relationship of rlhya and rgyal，the names of the early btsan-po of the spurgyal tribe，the author finds that the name “rlhya”，which was used by the leaders of the Tibetan tribes in the early Western Tibet，such as the Zhangzhung tribe，the gTsang tribe and the Lho-bo tribe，is a kind of Tibetan dialect，detached consonant“l” and its correct pronunciation is “rgyal”，meaning victory，and with the agentive suffix “po”，forming the word rgyal-po，which means victors or kings.

Keywords:rLhya；rGyal；Triballeader；West Tibet

A Study on Blon-chen Zhang-rgyal-tshan's Role in the Tang-Tubo Relations

LIN Guan-qun

Abstract:The subject in this writing，is for Khri-srong-ldeb-tsan's 5th appointed Blonchen，sNa-nam-zhangrgyal-tshan-lha-snang.sNanam-zhangrgyal-tshan was the fifth Blon-chen of Tubo appointed by Khri-srongldebtsan， following his predecessorngan-lam stag-sgraklu-khong.He took the position for 16 years(780—796).During his tenure， he personally led major events such as the Qingshui League of the Tang-Bo(783)，the recapture of Chang'an by the first Allied forces of the Tang-Bo(784)，thePingliang League of the Tubo Dynasty(787)，and the first break-up of between the Tang-Bo(787—803).He was the most extraordinary Blon-chen during Khri-srongldeb-tsan's late years.His influence on the development of the Tang-Bo relationship is very far-reaching.

Keywords:Zhangrgyaltshan，Blon-chen of Tubo， Qingshui Alliance，Pingliang League ；Fengtian Alliance

Reexamination on Brag-Yab-Rim-da Cliff Stone Inscriptions and Carvings

bSod-nams rDo-rje

Abstract:The Rim-da cliff stone inscriptions and carvings are composed of the statues of Vairochana and eight Bodhisattvas carved during the Tubo period，and also engraved with an abridged version of the Samantabhadra's Prayer Sutra(ārya-bhadra-cārya-pran·idhāna-rājā)and three inscriptions in Tibetan and Chinese，which reflects the artistic level of stone carvings in the Tubo period，including the religious beliefs of Tubo，important historical information such as Tang-Tubo peace talks and the exchanges between Han Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.On the basis of previous researches and field investigations，this article has made proofreading and retranslation of the inscriptions on the stone，focusing on the description，translation and research of the inscriptions of the Samantabhadra's Prayer Sutra which have not been transcribed before.On this basis，the textual research on the inscriptions and the history of the statues on the cliffs of Rim-da was carried out.Based on the records found in the Old Tang Book·Tubo Biography，which are consistent with the inscriptions of the Rim-da cliff，the important relationship between the stone inscriptions and the high-level delegation led by TuboB-lonKhri-ran to Chang'an in 804 was discussed in detail.

Keywords:Rim-da cliff stone inscriptions and carvings；Vairochana；Blonkhri-ran；Peace negotiations between Tang and Tubo

A Historical Study on the Dunhuang Tibetan Manuscript P 3288V(1)The method of Choosing auspicious days for bathing

ZHANG Fu-hui，CHEN Yu-zhu

Abstract:On the back of Dunhuang Tibetan manuscript P 3288 in the French National Library Collection，the Choosing auspicious days for bathing is adapted from the Chinese divination text of bathing by the Tibetan cultural elite who lived in Dunhuang in the late Tang and Five Dynasties.Its discovery shows that this kind of document not only has been popular for a long time in the Central Plains of ancient China，but also has a profound impact on the daily life of the Tibetan people.This article discusses the time of copying，content，historical origin，background of writing，and academic value of Choosing auspicious days for bathing.Based on this analysis，it is believed that the text formation process of Choosing auspicious days for bathing is also the process of Tubo immigrants in Dunhuang of the Tang and Song Dynasties reshaped their ethnic culture starting from their ethnic characteristics and adapted to the new climatic environment.Therefore，their daily life also presents new connotation and vitality.The Guiyi military power's policy measures of keeping the same customs and the reshaping and transformation of Dunhuang Tibetan immigrants'customs and rhythms have effectively strengthened the identity of the Han and Tibetan ethnic groups in the area in the field of health care and other life fields，and have become the driving force for the Gua and Sha era in the era of the Guiyi Army under the leading of Cao，which became an important historical synergy to promote the formation of the fusion of Gua，Sha and Tubo in the era of Cao's Guiyi Army.

Keywords:Choosing auspicious days for bathing；the Tibetan Manuscripts in Dunhuang；the daily life；Tibetan immigrants

The Collating Study on the Dunhuang Version and the Handed down Version of the Tibetan Translation of Vajra samadhi Sutra

Blo-bzang Don-grub

Abstract:The Vajra samadhi Sutra was spread to the inner land of China as a“suspected apocrypha” compiled by the Buddhist monks of Silla and included in the Tripitaka.In the 8th century，with the spread of Zen Buddhism from the inner land to Tubo，the Vajra samadhi Sutra was translated into Tibetan and then compiled into the Kangyur system ，which is an important trace left by Zen in Tibetan Buddhism.Comparing the Chinese and Tibetan versions，the author found that the quality of the handed-down version of the Tibetan translation is quite poor while the version found in Dunhuang can make up for the relevant deficiencies.This paper holds the opinion that as a book bearing specific cultural symbols，the vitality Vajra samadhi Sutra can be described as indomitable and tenacious，which plays an important role in flowing freely within the East Asian civilization and promoting the cultural exchange in various ethnic groups.

Keywords:Vajra samadhi Sutra；Zen Buddhism；Tubo；Dunhuang Manuscripts

On the Daily Life of the Staffs of the National Government's Officers in Tibet in the Early 1940s—Focusing on Dai Xinsan's Lhasa Diary

WANG Chuan

Abstract:Due to the lack of historical materials，the living conditions of the staffs of the National Government's Office in Tibet during the Anti-Japanese War were hardly concerned in the existing studies.With the discovery of the Lhasa Diary written by Dai Xinsan(1907—1997)，the chief of the second section of the Tibet Office，and the publication of relevant historical archives such as the selected archives of the Tibet Office of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission in Taiwan of China，it is possible for the academic circles to study the daily lives of the staffs of the Tibet office during the Republic of China，especially during the period of Anti-Japanese War.By exploring Dai Xinsan's Lhasa Diary and other valuable documents related to the Republic of China，we can restore many details of the work，personal income and living conditions of the staffs of the Tibet Office and their families in Lhasa in the early 1940s，and then analyze their impact on the mentality of the staff and the effectiveness of the Tibet Office in Lhasa.In addition，we can also glimpse some aspects of the exchange and interaction between various ethnic groups in Tibet during the period of the Republic of China，and then we can reflect on the shortcomings of the central government's policy of governing Tibet at that time.In general，this paper might provide historical experience for today's governance in Tibet，the modernization of governance system of the border area and the improvement of governance capacity，especially the personnel dispatch and policy guarantee etc.

Keywords:1940s；The National Government's Office in Tibet；Daily life of the staffs；Dai Xinsan's Lhasa Diary

Study on the Labrang Tibetan Society in the Context of the Rise of Modern Chinese Frontier Politics

LONG Qi-xin

Abstract:From the 1930s to the 1940s，Chinese frontier politics arose in response to the frontier crisis at that time.The Labrang area with Tibetans inhabited was a place where Tibetan Buddhism was widely spread in the northwest.It was also a rising economic and trade and transportation hub in the northwest at that time，which attracted many scholars who studied frontier and people from all walks of life to study and visit.During the pe-riod，scholars had carried out in-depth research on Labrang Tibetan society，such as tracing the origin and formation process of Labrang Tibetans，discussing social and economic issues of Labrang Tibetans，especially the development prospects of agriculture，animal husbandry and commerce，investigating the follow-up situation and impact of“establishing a bureau and changing into a county” in the Labrang area，observing the monk registering system of Labrang Monastery and the religious life of Labrang Tibetans，thinking about the modernization and direction of Labrang Tibetan culture and education，and researching and making judgments the relationship between Labrang Tibetans and other ethnic groups，etc.，which formed the documents and materials comprehensively reflecting the basic situation of Labrang Tibetan society at that time.These studies mainly integrated the research methods of the modern “new historiography” and social anthropology，holding both a modernized standpoint and romanticized feelings，as well as cross-ethnic empathy and unavoidable ethnic prejudice，which reflected the characteristics of the development of Chinese academic modernization as well as the knowledge and spiritual characteristics of Chinese academic circles of the time.Scholars of the time combined academic research and participation in local social and cultural construction，representing the example of the local knowledge of Labrang Tibetan society and the empathy across the ethnic groups，which not only helped the inland people to improve their understanding of frontier areas and ethnic groups，but also made efforts and contributions to maintain the unity of China's multi-ethnic country，far beyond scholars'own duties.This has certain enlightening significance for the contemporary Chinese academic research on“consolidating the sense of community for the Chinese nation”.

Keywords:Frontier politics；Labrangarea；Tibetans；The sense of community for the Chinese nation

The Dilemma，Tension and Practical Advancement of Urbanization of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Transfer Population of Ethnic Groups in the Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Counties of Gansu Province

YU Ji-ling，dPav-ris Don-grub

Abstract:The rapid development of urbanization results in the continuous expansion of urban space and a large number of rural population entering cities and towns.Coupled with the government's efforts to promote ur-banization，a large number of farmers and herdsmen have moved from rural and pastoral areas to cities and towns.Taking Hezuo City，Xiahe County and Tianzhu County of Gansu Province as the research objects，this paper analyzes why the farmers enter into the cities，how they adapt to the new environment，the living method and the consumption structure after that，how they construct the new social network and reshape the values in order to establish themselves in cities，and how they finally achieve their identity transformation from “rural people” to “city people”.The research results show that the ethnic population transferred from agriculture and animal husbandry in Gansu Province can be divided into various diversified and urbanization types，such as ecological migration type， accompanying study type， pension type， land-losing type and market-economic type.The ecological immigrant and landless urbanization types are passive one promoted by the government，and the transformation of farmers and herdsmen without urban life accumulation is somewhat abrupt.The accompanying study，pension and economic urbanization types are the practices of farmers and herdsmen to pursue development and achieve class leap.In general，due to the lack of“external empowerment” and “internal energization”，farmers and herdsmen entering the cities are in a marginal position of“non-agricultural/pastoral non-urban”，their roles are ambiguous，and their sense of civic identity is not so high.The “re-embedding” of farmers and herdsmen into the city faces the dilemma and tension of insufficient human capital，social capital and rights capital.This article puts forward the practical path of farmers and herdsmen's urbanization in small and medium-sized western cities from the aspects of adhering to the road of urban-rural integration，solving the bottleneck of local urbanization，and strengthening the social support network of farmers and herdsmen.

Keywords:Tibetan autonomous prefecture and counties of Gansu Province；Ethnic minority farmers and herdsmen population transfer；Urbanization；Practical advancement

Looking again at the trend of population change in Tibet from the seven census data

LIANG tong-gui

Abstract:Based on the latest seventh census data released by the Tibet Autonomous Region and data from previous population censuses，this paper analyzes the population and internal structure of the Tibet Autonomous Region since the 1980s.In 2020，the number of permanent residents in the Tibet Autonomous Region has risen to 3.648 million，and Lhasa has become the city with the largest population.The proportion of the elderly population aged 65 and above has risen to 5.7%，and the age structure of the population is still adult style.The number of family households has increased to 1.014 million households，the family size has dropped to 3.19 people，still higher than the national level of 2.62.The number of people with education levels at all levels has increased significantly，and the number of college-educated people per 100，000 population is still far behind the national population.The urbanization rate has risen from 9.48% in 1982 to 35.73% in 2020，still lower than the national average.The increase in the number of permanent residents in the Tibet Autonomous Region comes from the natural increase in the population within the autonomous region and the increase in the migrants from outside the autonomous region.The changes in various structures within the population are closely related to the changes in the economic and social development of the autonomous region over the past few years.In order to improve the Tibetan population development strategy and policy system，it is recommended in this paper that the autonomous region should further promote the following work:The first is to actively support the measures to encourage birth；at the same time，increase the intensity of opening to the outside world and attract more migrants.The second is to promote the reform of basic endowment insurance system for urban and rural residents，and to establish and improve the community pension service system.The third is to build a social service system that adapts to and meets family development，and promotes family development.The fourth is to integrate educational resources and guide more children of farmers and herdsmen to study in cities and towns，and improve the enrollment rate of senior high school education and higher education.The fifth is to keep promoting urbanization.

Keywords:Tibet population；The seventh census；Changing trends

sGrung and rGyal srid:Study on the Origin of Mythological Narration of Tubo bTsan pos

Tshe-ring bKra-shis

Abstract:As the narration of power-protection during the Tubo period，the three code “sGrung，lDevu and Bon” were the basic conclusion put forward by Tibetan historians in the later period，which was the key to study and understand the political culture of Tubo.The article sorts out the relational expressions between“sGrung，lDevu and Bon” and the political culture in historical materials，argues that“sgrung” or allegory refers to gNyav-khri-btsan-po descending to the world as a god，that is，the “mythological stories”(lhavi-lugskyi-sgrung)in historical records.This paper also proposes that“mythological stories”(lhavi-lugs-kyi-sgrung)is a“myth” that was gradually introduced into political ideology from the original Bon religious ritual narrative，and then formed the basis for the legitimacy of the Tubobtsan-po kingship，later also became a great tradition of making legitimacy，which was continued to be used in the later period as the construction of the authority of the Tibetan local government.

Keywords:Tubo；Allegory；Kingship；Myth

The Prajna Belief in Tubo Buddhist Tradition and Its Revival in the 11th Century in dBus and gTsang

YANG Hong-jiao

Abstract:The Prajnāpāramitā Sutra is one of the most important scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism and widely spread in the northern Buddhist region.In the early period of the later dissemination(late 10th century to the middle of 11th century)，where the Buddhist traditions of the Tubo period still continued and the sutra and s'astra of Prajnā still inherited orderly，became the most important source of the Buddhist revival movement in the later dissemination period.This article started with an introduction to the remains of the Prajnāpāramitā temples in three monasteries in gtsang region built in the 11th century，as well as the relics of the Tibetan Prajnāpāramitā Sutras which have a strong Tubo style of calligraphy in the same period.And then several issues，such as the spread of Prajnā belief in dbus and gtsang areas in the early period of the later dissemination，the tradition of Prajnā belief in Tubo period and the followed era of fragmentation，and the inheritance relationship between the lower route of Dharma diffusion and this tradition in the early period of the later dissemination，have been raised.Following this clue，on the one hand，this article deeply discusses the Prajnā belief in the Tubo period and the followed era of fragmentation from the dimensions of scriptures translation and its social function.On the other hand，it makes further discussion on the relationship between the lower route of Dharma diffusion and Prajnā belief in dbus and gtsang areas，and the related historical facts that the Prajnā belief in the Tubo period was revived in dbus and gtsang areas through the way of the lower route of Dharma diffusion during the early period of the later dissemination，i.e.，the initial stage of the Buddhist revival movement.And then it further focuses on the great significance of the lower route of Dharma diffusion of Han-Tibetan route，which had preserved the Buddhist tradition in the Tubo period，to the reconstruction of Buddhism of dbus-gtsang area in the early period of the later dissemination

Keywords:Prajnāblief； dBus-gtsangarea； Early period of the later dissemination； The lower route of Dharma diffusion

Diagnosis of Main Deterioration of the Palm Leaf Manuscripts in Tibet and Analysis of the Key Techniques for Restoration

ZHANG Mei-fang，SONG Xin，LV Xiao-fang，WANG Jun-qi，Zla-sgron

Abstract:The Tibet Autonomous Region has preserved more than 460 cases，nearly 30，000 pieces of precious treasures of the palm leaf manuscripts.Due to the long history，historical circulation and improper preservation conditions of various collection institutions，the palm leaf manuscripts have been damaged and deteriorated to varying degrees.This paper takes the palm leaf manuscripts collected in Tibet as the research object，and investigates its preservation status and disease situation.On this basis，the disease is divided into three types:active disease，stable disease and inducible disease according to the degree of damage.This paper mainly studies the deterioration speed and priority of the disease，and the nature，specific types and treatment measures of each disease type，focusing on a comprehensive analysis of the theoretical research and practical experience of active disease restoration techniques，and demonstrate the feasibility and applicability of key restoration techniques.The main conclusions are:mature technologies summarized in practice can be directly applied；technologies that can be used for reference can be applied selectively；technologies in exploration should be used with caution，and experiments should be carried out first；the practice of the palm leaf manuscripts repair practice should be carried out on a basis of the safe，stable，efficient and mature technology.

Keywords:Palm leaf manuscripts；Current situation of preservation；Deterioration types；Preservation and restoration