Sakshi Sharma · Rajesh Kumar

Abstract Sacred groves preserve a rich religious and socio-cultural heritage of Indian biodiversity from primeval times, due to their values. They act as a bridge between man and nature. Groves help to improve soil quality, replenish water resources and are pivotal for biodiversity conservation of plants and animals including rare, endemic, threatened, vulnerable species and ethnobotanical species. Most of India’s sacred groves are associated with a deity or a spiritual being, who protects the grove and local people. Vegetation cover of these groves has traditional ethnobotanical value,especially in the f ield of ethnomedicine, which accounts for the conservation of groves over the years. Numerous plant species from sacred groves are used according to tradition and culture to prevent or cure various health problems. However, modernisation, industrialisation, increased encroachment and misuse of forest resources increasingly threaten sacred groves. These treasures of nature must be conserved by formulating and applying new laws and policies while creating awareness among people about the value of sacred groves. Toward this aim, we review the distribution, ecological and socio-cultural signif icance of sacred groves of India and strategies to conserve them.

Keywords Biodiversity · Conservation · Endemic ·Ethnobotany · Ethnomedicine

Introduction

Sacred groves are biodiversity-rich forests with natural vegetation and associated with various native religious and cultural beliefs, myths and taboos (Savithramma et al. 2015).Generally, groves encompass < 1 to > 100 ha and exemplify climax vegetation in an area (Ray and Ramachandra 2010;Dutta et al. 2017). There are three types of sacred groves based on location and associated belief: traditional sacred groves, sacred groves near temples and sacred groves near cremation or burial sites (Asokan et al. 2015). They may be controlled by state forest departments, by revenue department or other government departments or under private ownership (Malhotra et al. 2001).

Sacred groves act as a connecting link between man,nature, sociocultural heritage, and religious and ethnic beliefs(Khan et al. 2008; Rao and Sunitha 2011; Basha et al. 2012).They have major ecological value in conserving biodiversity and restoring ecosystems (Khumbongmayum et al. 2004).Most of the plant species in these groves have medicinal importance (Asokan et al. 2015). Due to their agricultural,medicinal, economical and edible uses, plants have been worshiped and protected all over the globe as biological wealth since the Palaeolithic age (Malhotra et al. 2001; Jhansi et al.2018). Moreover, religious beliefs and taboos associated with f lora and fauna of sacred groves have important roles in the judicious use and conservation of the species (Khan et al. 2008). India has recognized and conserved this ancient wealth from the pre-Vedic age, but in recent times, sacred groves in India have faced the threat of extinction due to impacts of anthropogenic factors such as, industrialisation and modernisation (Rajesh 2016). Therefore, it is essential to understand the structure, function and present situation of these sacred sites for their proper conservation and maintenance. This review article focuses on aspects of sacred groves including their distribution in India, their ecological and sociocultural values, associated myths and beliefs, threats posed and strategies to conserve sacred groves.

Distribution

Sacred groves are dispersed all over the globe, e.g., in Africa,India, Japan, Thailand, China, Indonesia, Finland, Britain,Germany, Italy, and Turkey (Khan et al. 2008; Dutta et al.2017). Sacred groves are widely distributed in India (Khan et al. 2008), a huge nation with diverse climates, topographies, vegetation and people (Savithramma et al. 2015).According to Malhotra et al. ( 2001) and Parmar and Patel( 2010), the actual number of sacred groves in India has not been comprehensively studied, but roughly estimates range from 100,000 to 150,000. However, 15,716 Indian sacred groves have been reported in literature (Table 1) (Parmarand Patel 2010; Rao and Sunitha 2011; Basha et al. 2012;CPREEC ENVIS 2020).

Table 1 State wise distribution of sacred groves in India Sources Parmar and Patel ( 2010); Rao and Sunitha (2011); Basha et al.(2012); CPREEC ENVIS (2020)

Sacred groves in India have diff erent local names given by ethnic people based on religious and traditional beliefs(Khan et al. 2008), e.g., Pavithra-vanalu (Andhra Pradesh),Ranthii (Arunachal Pradesh), Dev (Madhya Pradesh), Devrai(Maharashtra), Sarnas (Bihar), Orans (Rajasthan), Nagabana(Karnataka), Kovilkadu (Tamil Nadu), Kavu (Kerala), Dev van (Himachal Pradesh), Ki Law Kyntang (Meghalaya),Jaherthan (Jharkhand), Lai Umang (Manipur), Garamthan(West Bengal), etc. (Malhotra et al. 2001; Khumbongmayum et al. 2004; Khan et al. 2008; Ormsby and Bhagwat 2010; Parmar and Patel 2010; Basha et al. 2012; Krishna and Amirthalingam 2014; Lalitha 2015; Dutta et al. 2017;Manoharan and Chinnappan 2019).

Ecological signif icance

As storehouses of genetic diversity (Basha et al. 2012),sacred groves contribute to conservation of soils, water resources and biodiversity. They provide water to local people via streams, ponds and springs. Moreover, vegetation cover in groves aids in recharging aquifers, preventing soil erosion, restoring wastelands and maintaining the availability of natural resources and renewable raw materials for industry (Khumbongmayum et al. 2004; Parmar and Patel 2010). As repositories of valuable genetic resources of rare,endangered, vulnerable, threatened and endemic plant and animal species, wild relatives of domesticated plant species and remnants of the primeval undisturbed forests, sacred groves also serve as a sanctuary for in situ conservation of genetic resources (Rao and Sunitha 2011; Savithramma et al.2015). These genetic resources can be important in conservation programs for diff erent species (Sen 2018). However,species composition of sacred groves continually changes over time (Asokan et al. 2015).

Sacred groves must therefore be protected so that they can continue maintaining ecological and environmental balances and servicing local communities (Basha et al. 2012; Jhansi et al. 2018). Identif ication of plants listed under diff erent categories such as rare, endemic, threatened, vulnerable,endangered in IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) Red list in sacred groves suggests that these plants exist in these groves and can be regenerated if they vanish in nearby forests (Sen 2018).Some of the plant species in sacred groves from India that are endemic and/or listed under various IUCN conservation categories are presented in Table 2.

References PBB ( 2019)Gawade et al. ( 2018)Deepa et al. ( 2016)Rajesh ( 2016)Chandrakar et al. ( 2014)Panda et al. ( 2014)Status category Rare Rare Threatened Endemic Endemic Endemic, threatened Rare Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.), Gloriosa superba L. Vulnerable Threatened Near threatened Endangered Vulnerable Low risk Least concern Data defi cient Vulnerable Endangered Least concern Low risk/least concern Table 2 Conservation and endemic status of some plant species reported in diff erent sacred groves in India Plant species Bauhinia variegata, Carissa spinarum, Diospyros Aegle marmelos, Adhatoda vasica, Bombax ceiba,tomentosa, Flacourtia indica, Holoptelea integrifolia,Mallotus philippensis, Murraya koenigii Antiaris toxicaria, Entada scandens, Saraca asoca(locally rare)Cryptocoryne cognata Hook.f., Olea dioica Roxb., Sida rhomboidea Roxb.Bridelia stipularis (L.) Blume, Holigarna arnottiana ex Fleming Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., Hopea ponga Mabb.,Hopea parvifl ora Bedd., Holigarna ferruginea March., Ixora brachiata Roxb., Memecylon malabaricum Cogn.Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.Withania somnifera Ailanthus excelsa, Bauhinia malabarica, Calotropis procera, Terminalia bellirica, Schleichera oleosa Hedychium spicatum, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia chebula, Sterculia urens, Terminalia tomentosa urens, Diospyros melanoxylon, Gloriosa superba,Cholrophytum tuberosum, Cocos nucifera, Caryota Madhuca latifolia, Nyctanthes spp., Pterocarpus marsupium, Saraca indica, Semecarpus anacardium,Santalum album Aegle marmelos, Chloroxylon swietenia, Cleistanthus collinus, Rauvolfi a serpentina, Tinospora cordifolia Buchanania lanzan Gmelina arborea, Pongamia pinnata, Tectona grandis Azadirachta indica, Butea monosperma Delonix regia Boj. Ex. Hook., Pterocarpus marsu-Ageratum conyzoides L., Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.,pium Roxb., Santalum album L., Saraca asoca Roxb Pterocarpus santalinus L.Centella asiatica L., Colocasia esculenta L., Marsilea Acacia auriculiformis A.Cunn., Bauhinia purpurea L.,minuta L., Mimosa pudica L.Buchanania lanzan Spreng., Shorea robusta Roth.,Woodfordia fruticosa L.Serial No. Sacred grove Baba Sukhia Ji sacred grove, village Kartoli, block Talwara, Hoshiarpur district, Punjab Sacred Groves of Dapoli, Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra Ayyalath Nagayakshi Kavu, Kumaramangalath Kavu,Chemathi Kavu and Kalapparambath Kavu, Kodungallur Taluk, Thrissur, Kerala Sacred groves along the river Kumaradhara, Puttur Taluk, Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka Sacred groves in Chhattisgarh Sacred Groves, Koraput district, Odisha 1 2 3 4 5 6

References Savithramma et al. ( 2013)Basha et al. ( 2012)Warrier and Kunhikan- nan ( 2012)Status category Endemic Threatened Endangered Vulnerable Rare, endemic Critically endangered, endemic Vulnerable Endemic Plant species Boswellia ovalifoliolata, Cycas beddomei, Pimpinella tirupatiensis, Pterocarpus santalinus, Syzygium alternifolium, Rhynchosia beddomei, Sophora interrupta, Terminalia pallida Cochlospermum religiosum, Decalepis hamiltonii,Pavonia somifera, Plumbago indica, Pueraria tuberosa, Strychnos potatorum, Tylophora indica Christella dentata, Costus speciosus, Gloriosa superba,Glycosmis pentaphylla, Hybanthus enneaspermus,Hemionitis arifolia, Hemidesmus indicus, Lygodium fl exuosum, Moringa concanensis, Piper sylvestre,Strychnos nux-vomica, Vanda spathulata, Vanda roxburghii, Vernonia anthelmintica Centella asiatica, Corallocarpus epigaeus, Careya Alstonia scholaris, Cardiospermum halicacabum,arborea, Cucumeria aliangium, Dillenia pentagyna,Dalbergia latifolia, Entada pursaetha, Habenaria apetala, Holostemma ada-kodien, Madhuca longifolia, Maerua oblongifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium,Soymida febrifuga, Scheffl era stellata Kunstleria keralensis C.N.Mohanan & N.C.Nair Syzygium travancoricum Gamble, Vateria indica L.Hopea parvifl ora Bedd., Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. Endangered, endemic Roxb., Santalum album L., Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Buchanania lanceolata Wight, Dalbergia latifolia Wilde Manilal & Sathish, Calamus rotang L., Calophyllum Artocarpus hirsutus Lam., Bulbophyllum rheedei calaba L., Casearia rubescens Dalz., Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm. f.) Blume, Dalbergia horrida(Dennst.) Mabb., Gnetum edule (Willd.) Blume,Helicanthes elastica (Desr.) Danser, Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Oken, Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f., Lagenandra toxicaria Dalz., Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight, Memecylon randerianum S.M. &M.R.Almeida, Myristica malabarica Lam., Mallotus atrovirens Muell.-Arg., Osbeckia muralis Naud.,Salacia fruticosa Heyne ex Lawson, Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston, Tabernaemontana alternifolia L., Theriophonum infaustum N.E.Br., Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Table 2 (continued)Serial No. Sacred grove Tumburu Theertham sacred grove, Tirumala hills, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh 7 Penusila Narasimha sacred grove, Nellore district,Andhra Pradesh 8 Sacred groves in Alappuzha district, Kerala 9

References Sen ( 2019)Status category Vulnerable Least concern Lower risk/least concern Plant species Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook.f.Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC., Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson, Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Brachiaria reptans (L.)C.A.Gardner & C.E.Hubb., Cajanus scarabaeoides(L.) Thouars, Centella asiatica (L.) Urb., Commelina benghalensis L., Cyperus rotundus L., Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., Eleocharis geniculata (L.) Roem. &Schult., Enydra fl uctuans DC., Hygrophila diff ormis(L.f.) Sreem. & Bennet, Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb.,Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H.Raven, Mimosa pudic a L., Oldenlandia corymbosa L., Schoenoplectiella roylei (Nees) Lye, Sphaeranthus indicus L.,Sphagneticola calendulacea (L.) Pruski, Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze, Vanda tessellata (Roxb.)Hook. ex G.Don Shorea robusta Gaertn.Table 2 (continued)Serial No. Sacred grove Joypur Joysini Matar Than, West Midnapore District,West Bengal 10

In a study of the 160 reported medicinal plant species in the biodiverse Penusila Narasimha Sacred Grove (Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh) in Veligondalu, Eastern Ghats, Basha et al. ( 2012) found that 7 were listed as threatened, 14 as endangered and 16 as vulnerable (Table 2). In Assam, plants such asMusa velutina(pink banana),Melocanna baccifera(pear bamboo),Dendrocalamus giganteus(giant bamboo),Ficus exasperata(sand paper tree),Abroma augusta(devil’s cotton),Smilax aspera(Indian smilax) are highly protected and considered sacred along with the wildlife such as deer and birds in the sacred groves (Amirthalingam 2016). Moreover,Medhi and Borthakur ( 2013) reported that in Assam, killing of diff erent animals and birds (living in and around the sacred groves) is prohibited during their mating seasons.

In Manipur, many sacred groves have rare and endemic plants species (Upadhyay et al. 2019). According to Khumbongmayum ( 2004), of the reported sacred groves in Manipur, 58% were partially threatened, 31% were under threat, whereas the remaining 11% were classif ied as well preserved. In Rajasthan, common plant species such as Cutch tree, salvia-leaved cross berry, Indian mesquite, neem, Indian plum, mukul myrrh tree, banyan, Indian tree of heaven and peepal are found and resources are used only when required,indicating the tradition to support ecosystem services(Amirthalingam 2016). In Punjab, sacred groves have native tree species and thick vegetation including many medicinal plants, grasses and herbs (Jerath 2014; Amirthalingam 2016).

In the Joypur Joysini Matar Than sacred grove in the West Midnapore district, West Bengal,Cleistanthus collinushas been identif ied as a vulnerable tree species among 32 plant species studied by Sen ( 2018). Pala et al. ( 2013) reported that among 47 species of trees from protected and sacred groves from Garhwal Himalaya, 17 exhibited either poor or no regeneration, e.g.,Albizia julibrissin,Betula alnoides,Populus ciliata, Cupressus torulosa,Pyrus communis,Quercus floribunda, Rhus punjabensis,Taxus baccata,Toona ciliata, etc. The Baba Sukhia Ji sacred grove in the village Kartoli, block Talwara, Hoshiarpur district, Punjab has some rare timber and medicinal plant species (Table 2).Fauna at this site include monkey, python, wild boar, owl,mongoose, peafowl, Indian squirrel, rats and Indian pangolin among others (PBB 2019).

Sociocultural values

Sacred groves became an integral part of tribal and rural lives and revered for their religious, cultural, social, medicinal, economic, psychological and educational importance(Jhansi et al. 2018). Such sociocultural values have always encouraged people to conserve biodiversity by connecting people with nature. Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads and ancient works such as Mahabhashya, Ashtadhyayi, Vartika, Charak Shusruta and Charak Samhita by sages, priests and scholars of ancient India also record numerous popular plants, rendering them sacred (Dhal et al. 2011; Jhansi et al. 2018).

Since ancient times, rural and tribal people in India have garnered a vast knowledge of plant use for primary health care using the Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha medicine systems (Savithramma et al. 2013; Rampilla and Mahammad 2015). Stem bark, roots, leaves, f lowers, fruits, seeds and latex are used as juices, powders, pastes and decoctions, both orally and topically for treating diff erent ailments (Savithramma et al. 2015; Jhansi et al. 2018). Savithramma et al.( 2015) documented the application of 31 medicinal plants species from Kailasakona sacred grove, Chittoor district,Andhra Pradesh to treat 25 diff erent types of diseases. Panda et al. ( 2014) documented 94 plant species (47 trees, 21 herbs and 26 shrubs) from sacred groves of Koraput district of Odisha and reported that 39% plants were used as herbal medicines by tribal people, 23% had religious signif icance and 13% plants are used as food. Tribal leaders in Tumburu Theertham sacred grove, Tirumala Hills, Andhra Pradesh have been using 35 plant species with medicinal properties (18 trees, 7 shrubs, 5 herbs, 3 climbers and 2 lianas) to treat 31 diff erent types of human ailments (Savithramma et al. 2013). In the sacred groves of Mahendergarh district,Haryana, which have been owned and protected by particular families from one generation to next, 90% of the 50 plant species had medicinal importance (Yadav et al. 2010). The plants also supplied vegetables, edible leaves fruits and honey to support the local people. Local people around sacred groves in Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh use wood from diff erent trees such asCassia auriculata,Chloroxylon swietenia,Albizia odaratissima,Tectona grandis,Dalbergia latifolia,Lagerstroemia parvif loraandAnogeissus latifoliafor building their houses (Jhansi et al. 2018).

Manjula and Norman ( 2017) surveyed sacred groves in Velliangiri Hills of Western Ghats and recorded 55 tree species with medicinal values. Some of the ethnomedicinal plants reported from the sacred groves in India are listed in Table 3. IUCN conservation status and endemic status of all plant species included in Tables 2 and 3 were obtained from the literature. Of 287 entries of plant species (175 in Table 2,112 in Table 3), 57 were categoried as least concern, 40 were endemic, 36 were vulnerable, 27 were endangered,14 were reported as rare, 13 were threatened, 7 were near threatened, 5 were data def icient, 4 were categorised as low risk/least concern, 2 were endangered and endemic, 2 were critically endangerd and endemic, 1 was rare and endemic,1 was endemic and threatened, 1 was critically endangerd and 1 was under low risk. However, 76 plants reported in the sacred groves have not been evaluated by the IUCN.

Sacred groves in India: myths and beliefs

Sacred groves are mostly dedicated to a deity and ancestral spirits, which are believed to protect the wellbeing of local people and punish wrongdoers (Malhotra et al. 2001;Rao and Sunitha 2011; Dutta et al. 2017). This ancient link between man and nature (Savithramma et al. 2015) and different taboos, myths and beliefs have contributed to preserving the biodiversity in sacred groves by local people (Basha et al. 2012).

The Dargah Peer Baba Majnu Shah Ji sacred grove in the village Tibba Taprian, block Nurpur Bedi, Rupnagar district is around 300 years old. The Peer Baba Majnu Shah Ji are believed to have worshiped here for 200 years and that they only ate fruits ofFicus racemosa. This undisturbed site is preserved by the villagers (PBB 2019). The Penusila Narasimha sacred grove, Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh is strictly protected by the tribal groups of the area because they believe that Lord Narasimha manifested here as a huge rock (Penusila) (Basha et al. 2012). Tribal people of the sacred groves in Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh celebrate festivals such asSivarathri,Majjigyramma,Nookalamma,Sirasa,SanapaandKandikothalain these groves and use branches ofStrychnos nux-vomicato ward off evil(Jhansi et al. 2018). In Manipur, sacred deities, Umanglai,are believed to live in sacred groves and are worshipped annually by celebrating Umanglai Haraoba (Upadhyay et al.2019).

The sacred grove Baba Sukhia Ji in the village Kartoli,block Talwara, Hoshiarpur district, Punjab, is preserved by the locals and a temple of Sidh Baba Sukhia Ji, who worshipped under a Banyan tree here, was constructed by the Panchayat of village Kartoli. This village is said to have been cursed by Baba ji after the disgraceful behaviour of some people but it was re-inhabited after blessings from Baba Ji,when villagers started worshipping here (PBB 2019). In Manipur, in the Meitei community, forests are commonly dedicated to deities. Such practices are important for biodiversity conservation (Dutta et al. 2017). Sacred groves of Ziro Valley, Arunachal Pradesh are protected by the Apatani tribes based on their religious and sociocultural beliefs. Each clan has its own sacred grove that is believed to have been planted by clan ancestors. They believe that destruction of these groves would lead to punishment of culprits; therefore,out of fear, groves are not disturbed and not used for any economic purpose. In this area,Prunus persicais regarded as a sacred species and used in rituals during the Myoko festival (Dutta et al. 2017). The Gurjar community of Rajasthan plants and worships neem (Azadirachta indica) considering it as the abode of God (Amirthalingam 2016).

In the Joypur Joysini Matar Than sacred grove, West Midnapore district, West Bengal local people visit the grove and worship the presiding deity, the Goddess Joysini, after the annualPausSankrantibecause they consider the grove as the abode of the Goddess and thus do not disturb the f lora and fauna (Sen 2018). Maru and Patel ( 2013) surveyed sacred groves of Jhalod and surrounding areas in Dahod district,

Gujarat and documented 37 plant species. They also studied the beliefs of local people associated with these sacred groves and observed that, in most of the groves, people off ered daily prayers or during festivals or occasions such asSivaratri, Aamli agiyarus, Shravan mas, RamnavamiandHanumanjayati. They believe that these groves are protected by their deities, who fulf ill everyone’s wishes.Panch Krishna sacred grove, is also known as Hidambavan,and people believe that Pandavas stayed here and met Lord Krishna during their 12-year-long exile.

References Ailments treated Eye and heart diseases Yadav et al. ( 2019)Diarrhoea, eczema Eczema Blood purifi er, diar- rhoea Throat cancer Hyperacidity, anaemia Part of plant used Rhizome Bark, gum, fruit Whole plant Whole plant Bark, fruit Whole plant Conser-vation status*LC A NE B NE B NE C Table 3 List of some plants with ethnomedicinal values from sacred groves in diff erent parts of India Family Araceae Mimosaceae Amaranthaceae Scrophulariaceae LC A Cadesalpiniaceae LC A Asteraceae Vernacular name Buch Kiker Kantaili chaulai Brahmi Amaltas Bhringraj Species name Acorus calamus L.Acacia arabica auct. non (Lam.) Willd.Amaranthus spinosus L.Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Cassia siamea Lam.Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.Serial. No Sacred grove Sacred groves, Bho- ramdev wildlife sanc- tuary, Kabirdham district, Chhattisgarh 1

References Ailments treated Deepa et al. ( 2017)Urinary obstructions, haemorrhage, blad- der stones, others Urinary calculi, asthma, stomacha- lgia, hyperdipsia, wounds, others Piles, worms, leprosy, cardiac diseases, urinary calculi, polyuria, syphilis, others Skin diseases, dysen- tery, leucorrhoea, nervous disorders, diarrhoea, diabetes, others Eczema, typhoid, syphilitic ulceration, others Tapeworms infestation, abdominal disorders, calculus, leprosy, skin diseases, fl atu- lence, others Haematuria, sciatica and facial paralysis, neurological disor- ders, tuberculosis, leucorrhoea, frequent micturition, others Jaundice, diabetes, piles, neurological disorders, respiratory disorders, others Part of plant used--Tubers Bark---Stem Conser-vation status*NE D Family Amaranthaceae NE B Oxalidaceae NE B Dioscoreaceae NE B Moraceae NE B Tiliaceae LC A Euphorbiaceae NE B Malvaceae Menispermaceae NE C Vernacular name Species name Cherula Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult.Mukkutti Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch Dioscorea bulbifera L. Kattukachil Ficus benghalensis L. Peraal Kotta Grewia nervosa (Lour.) Panigrahi Sindooram Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.Anakurumt-hotti Sida cordifolia L.Chitamruthu Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers.Table 3 (continued)Serial. No Sacred grove Chithalikavu, Talap- pilly Taluk, Thrissur district, Kerala 2

References Ailments treated Part of plant used Manjula and Norman ( 2017)Improves body strength (Stamina)Uterine infl ammation Birth control Leprosy Menstrual problems, wounds, fever Chronic bronchitis, asthma, cough, others Patel and Patel ( 2017)Gastric disorders, cough, cold, worms Snake bites, scorpion sting, abdominal pains, others Fever, hair problems, weak eyesight, gastric problems, dyspepsia, others Dysentery, jaundice, bronchitis, sore throat, others Gonorrhoea, scorpion sting, kidney infl am- mation, others-----Whole plant Fruit, roots, stems, gum Fruit, leaves, fl owers, stem bark, seeds Fruit Leaves Bark, fruit, gum, stem, leaves Conser-vation status*NE B LC A LC A NE B EN A NE B LC A NE C NE C NE B DD A Family Moraceae Rhamnaceae Phyllanthaceae Achariaceae Lauraceae Acanthaceae Annonaaceae Asclepiadaceae Euphobiaceae Lythraceae Anacardiaceae Vernacular name Species name Table 3 (continued)Serial. No Sacred grove Pala Chooraimullu Adamarudu Artocarpus hetero- phyllus Ziziphus oenopolia Sacred grooves in Vel- liangiri Hills, Wetern Ghats, Tamil Nadu Bridelia crenulata Hydnocarpus alpinus Koranguthalai Cinnamomum wightii Kattu Lavangam 3 Adhatoda vasica Nees. Ardusi Sitaphal Annona squamosa L.Patan sacred grove, Patan district, Gujarat 4 Safed akado Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R.Br. ex Ait Amla Emblica offi cinalis Gaertn.Mendi Lawsonia inermis Linn.Mangifera indica Linn. Ambo

References Ailments treated Singh et al. ( 2017)Whooping cough Malaria, scabies, others Malaria, sprains Leucoderma Depression, rheuma- tism, others Hepatitis, chronic dysentery, others High blood pressure, dysmenorrhoea, others Migraines Ezhil et al. ( 2016)Fever Fractures Menstrual issues, jaundice, earache Skin diseases Dysentery Intrinsic haemorrhage Modi and Mathad ( 2016)Gall bladder stones Constipation, leprosy Dysentery Toothache, diabetes, others Part of plant used--------Leaves Latex Leaves Leaves, tubers Seeds Whole plant--Leaves-Conser-vation status*NE B Family Araliaceae NE B Rutaceae NE B NE B Amaranthaceae Dipsacaceae NE B Hypericaceae Scrophulariaceae NE B CR A Valerianaceae NE B Rubiaceae NE B LC A Asclepiadaceae Moraceae NE B Combretaceae LC A NE B NE B Colchicaceae Combretaceae Acanthaceae NE B Amaranthaceae Commelianceae LC A VU A LC A Leguminosae Myrtaceae Vernacular name Species name Table 3 (continued)Serial. No Sacred grove Laguli Pishumar Phulee Basanti Kutki Jattamaansi Hedera nepalensis (K.Koch)Boenninghausenia albifl ora (Hook.) Rchb. ex Meisn.Achyranthes aspera L. Latjiri Dipsacus inermis Wall.Hypericum elodeoides Choisy Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.Nardostachys jata- mansi (D.Don.) DC.Haryali Devi and Tungnath sacred groves, Uttarakhand 5 Koo-basya Veliparuthi Aththi Marutham Leptodermis lanceo- lata Wall.Pergularia daemia Ficus glomerata Roxb. (syn. Ficus racemosa)Terminalia arjuna Aaththimaram kaali amman and Por- panaikottai sacred groves, Pudukottai district, Tamil Nadu 6 Kalappai kilangu Thanri kaai Nelabevu Gubbacchi bale Japala kayi Gloriosa superba Terminalia bellirica Andrographis panicu- lata Nees.Achyranthes aspera L.Uttarani Commelina bengha- lensis L.Acacia ferruginea DC. Banni mara Psidium guajava L.Gavisiddalingesh- war sacred grove, Chintanpalli, Yadgir district, Karnataka 7

References Rao ( 2016)Behera et al. ( 2015)Ailments treated Snake bite Skin diseases, urinary problems, malaria Boils and infl amma- tory swelling Boils Migraine, jaundice, leucoderma, others Skin diseases, hair problems Fever Asthma Diarrhoea Malaria, skin diseases Part of plant used Leaves Roots, leaves Leaves Leaves Roots, fruit Fruit Leaves, fruit Leaves, stem Bark Seeds, roots Conser-vation status*Family Menispermaceae NE B NE B Papaveraceae Caryophyllaceae NE B NE B Tiliaceae LC A Solanaceae NE B Combretaceae NE C Solanaceae NE B NE B NE B Euphorbiaceae Lecythidaceae Papaveraceae Vernacular name Species name Table 3 (continued)Serial. No Sacred grove Dusaratiga Bomma sari Bankathuthar Armed tree Bahada Bhejibaigana Dudhi Satyanasi Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Theob Argemone mexicana L. Nellarakasi Polycarpaea corym- bosa (L.) Lam.Sri Parvathi Jadala Rama Lingeshwara Swamy sacred grove, Nalgonda district, Telangana Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.). Roxb.Solanum xanthocar- pum Schrad. & Wendl.Euphorbia hirta L.Careya arborea Roxb.Kumbhi Argemone mexicana Linn.Phulbani, Odisha 8 9

References Savithramma et al. ( 2015)Brahma et al. ( 2014)Ailments treated Cough, scabies, wounds Skin diseases, urinary disorders and swell- ings Worms Jaundice Dysentery Bronchitis Diabetes Leprosy Dysentery Snake bite Diarrhoea, fever Small pox Skin problems, dia- betes Asthma, rheumatism, diarrhoea, others Rheumatic pains and swellings Part of plant used Stem bark Whole plant Leaves Fruit Fruit Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Roots Fruit Leaves Leaves, roots Bark, leaves Conser-vation status*LC A NE B NE B NE B NE B NE B NE B NE B LC A NE B LC A NE C LC A NE B LC A Family Vernacular name Species name Table 3 (continued)Serial. No Sacred grove Mimosaceae Asteraceae Korintha Sanna palleru Acacia caesia (L.) Willd.Acanthospermum hispidum DC.Kailasakona sacred grove, Chittoor dis- trict, Andhra Pradesh 10 Capparaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Verbenaceae Apocynaceae Fabaceae Euphorbiaceae Ulmaceae Asteraceae Meliaceae Verbenaceae Capparaceae Nallagara Putangiteega Vedalateega Bharangi Palateega Nela Vemplali Neeru agnivandrum Onagraceae Nalla purugudu Kondajonna Marulamathangi Neem gakha Mukhna Cadaba trifoliata (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn.Calycopteris fl ori- bunda Lam.Combretum albidum G.Don.Duranta repens L.Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br.Indigofera aspala- thoides Vahl.Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir.Trema orientalis (L.) Blume.Xanthium indicum Koenig.Azadirachta indica Juss.Clerodendrum visco- sum Vent.Crateva adansonii DC. Dharma phul Sacred groves in Bodoland Territorial Council, Assam 11

References Ailments treated Savithramma et al. ( 2013)Rheumatic pains Dysentery, stomach ulcers Fever Urinary disorders Diabetes Sahu et al. ( 2013)Diarrhoea, stomach ache, constipa- tion, stomach ulcer, diabetes Toothache, eye and skin diseases Boils, scorpion sting, others Cough, cold, others Sambandan and Dhatch- anamoorthy ( 2012)Eye problems Intermittent fever Measles-like swellings on skin Wounds, abscesses, dysentery, diuretic, others Rheumatism, scorpion sting Stomach ache, parasitic worms Part of plant used Seeds Gum from stem bark Leaves Roots Stem Leaves, fruit Seeds, leaves, twigs Latex Rhizome Fruits Leaves, seeds Leaves Leaves, roots Bark Leaves Conser-vation status*VU A NE B NE B NT A NE C Family Menispermaceae NE B Burseraceae Bignoniaceae Acanthaceae Fabaceae Rutaceae Vernacular name Kakumanu Konda-sambrani Neruddi Jurbula gadda Erra Chandanam Bel Species name Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wt & Arn.Boswellia ovalifoli- olata Bal. et Henry.Dolichandrone atrovi- rens (Roth) Spr.Ruellia tuberosa L.Pterocarpus santali- nus L.Aegle marmelos L.LC A Meliaceae Azadirachta indica L. Neem NE B DD A NE B LC A LC A Madar and Safed Aak Asclepiadaceae Zingiberaceae Euphorbiaceae Apocynaceae Moraceae Haldi Pacha arali Piraya maram Calotropis procera (Aiton) Aiton Curcuma domestica L. (syn. Curcuma longa L.)Phyllanthus emblica L. Amla Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold.Streblus asper Lour.NE B Fabaceae Sirupulladi Desmodium trifl orum (L.) DC.LC A NE B Mimosaceae Acanthaceae Vaelikaruvai Gopuram thaangi Prosopis chilensis (Molina) stuntz Andrographis echioides Nees.Table 3 (continued)Serial. No Sacred grove Tumburu Theer- tham Sacred grove of Tirumala hills, Andhra Pradesh 12 Sacred groves in Bun- delkhand, Madhya Pradesh 13 Sacred Grove near Sethur village, Thirunallar com- mune, Karaikal dis- trict, Union territory of Puducherry 14

References Waghchaure et al. ( 2011)Jaryan et al. ( 2010)Meena and Yadav ( 2010)Yadav et al. ( 2010)Ailments treated Wounds, injuries, stomach ache Earache, excess hair Whopping cough, weight loss Kidney stones Scabies Asthma, night blind- ness, others Stomach pain Piles, cholera, leprosy, others Psoriasis, syphilis, eczema, others Snake bite Infertility Headache Rheumatism Cough, cold Diarrhoea, wounds Painful micturition Headache, fever, diges- tive problems Leprosy, scabies, infl ammation Diabetes, fever, cold Part of plant used Bark Bulbs, leaves Seeds Seeds Seeds Bark Leaves Flowers, seeds, roots Leaves, seeds Bark Bark Flowers Whole plant Stems Whole plant Fruits, bark Whole plant Leaves Leaves Conser-vation status*NT A Family Fabaceae NE B Alliaceae Caesalpiniaceae NE B NE B NE B NE B Verbinaceae Papavaraceae Fabaceae Chenopodeaceae NE B Nelumbonaceae DD A NE C Solanaceae NE B Alangiaceae NE B NE B NE B Bombacaceae Zingiberaceae Loranthaceae LC A Combretaceae Chenopodeaceae NE B NE B LC A Moraceae Lamiaceae NE B Musaceae NE B Lamiaceae Vernacular name Species name Table 3 (continued)Serial. No Sacred grove Tiwas Lasun Sag Siris Bathua Kamal Pterocarpus marsu- pium Roxb.Allium sativum L.Cassia occidentalis L. Kasindri Tectona grandis L.Argemone mexicana L. Bilayat Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.Chenopodium album Linn.Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner Solanum nigrum Linn.Kakamachi Katei baba sacred grove and nearby area of Adhalwadi, Akole taluka, Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra Shivbari sacred grove, Una district, Himachal Pradesh 15 16 Ankol Sibal Va-hakar Ubia Bathua Pudina Alangium salviifolium (Linn. f.)Bombax ceiba Linn.Sacred groves of Sirohi district, Rajasthan Curcuma amada Roxb. Shankariya Viscum articulatum Burm. f.Terminalia catappa Linn.Chenopodium album L.Ficus benghalensis L. Barh Mentha arvensis L.Sacred groves of Mahendergarh dis- trict, Haryana 17 18 Kela Musa paradisiaca L.Tulsi Ocimum sanctum L.

Threats to sacred groves and their conservation

Khumbongmayum et al. ( 2004) and Dutta et al. ( 2017)reported that sacred groves support innumerable rare and endemic plant and animal species on the verge of extinction.Anthropogenic factors responsible for loss of biodiversity in sacred groves are population explosion, encroachment of groves for industrialisation, farmers cultivating cash crops on land cleared in sacred groves, deforestation and habitat destruction due to developmental projects, such as construction of dams and roads (Rajesh 2016). Changes to the biotic and abiotic composition and conversion of forestland into wasteland has led to the destruction of the sacred groves.

Moreover, reduction in numbers of believers, followers,and practitioners of ethnobotany, especially ethnomedicine, and fragmentation of families taking care of sacred groves has resulted in loss of knowledge of the sociocultural value of plants, leading to a lapse in protection of sacred groves (Savithramma et al. 2015). The integrity of sacred groves with endemic plants also has been under constant threat due to a heavy inf lux of tourists/ pilgrims and their non-ecofriendly behaviours during ceremonial celebrations(Savithramma et al. 2013). Increased human interference in sacred groves has altered their ecosystems and decreased the social and cultural values of the groves; therefore, in situ and ex situ conservation of sacred groves, followed by documentation of biodiversity of sacred groves and associated knowledge are required for their conservation (Rampilla and Mahammad 2015; Savithramma et al. 2015; Rajesh 2016).

Malhotra et al. ( 2001) reported that communities, government and non-government organisations have contributed to the protection of sacred groves in India by establishing new groves in Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand,West Bengal and Kerala. Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya (Bhopal) has collaborated with various academic and non-government organisations including the World Wide Fund for Nature-India, Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies (Barrackpore), Indian Institute of Science(Banglore), Applied Environmental Research Foundation(Pune), North Eastern Hill University (Shillong), etc. to conserve biological, sociocultural and ecological values of the sacred groves (Malhotra et al. 2001). C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre (CPREEC) surveyed sacred groves in Tamil Nadu and demarcated them for preservation and management on the basis of their endemic and threatened plant species (CPREEC 2016). CPREEC Centre, since 1993,has restored 52 sacred groves, which were endangered and nearly destroyed, in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh (Sudhakar and Selvapandian 2010).

Conserving the large number of sacred groves in India is diffi cult; therefore, based on the conservation planning framework designed by The Nature Conservancy (Groves et al. 2002), sacred groves can be prioritized for conservation. For this purpose, f irstly, diff erent sacred groves in India should be identif ied and surveyed to collect information such as land cover, geology, climate, vegetation cover, biodiversity, population density to f ill gaps in our information and set realistic goals to conserve sacred groves. Then, the survival capacity of biodiversity in sacred groves must be evaluated based on size, landscape and condition. A portfolio of sacred groves should also be constructed using diff erent computational algorithms and network designs. All these steps will help prioritize sacred groves for conservation depending on factors such as conservation value, present conservation status, conservation potential, leverage and threats posed to sacred groves.

Management approaches to protect sacred groves include(Asokan et al. 2015; Dutta et al. ( 2017); formulating new policies and laws for conservation of sacred groves, maintaining an inventory and data bank of sacred groves, gaining the attention and support of the government and people for protecting the sacred groves, disseminating information and increasing awareness about the importance of sacred groves in conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecological balance, developing frameworks for sustainable development by local tribes to engage them in conservation of sacred groves and the associated heritage, recovering the lost traditional knowledge about these sites and their biodiversity, combining the traditional beliefs with modern scientif ic practices for sustainable conservation, prohibiting excessive human interference and unauthorized extraction of natural products from the sacred groves, and preventing f ires and excessive grazing in sacred groves.

Conclusions

Sacred groves have served religion, society, and culture in India and provided ecological, environmental, economic,and medicinal services since ancient times. As a result,people have protected them. The advancement and industrialisation of society threatens sacred groves in India, so their conservation depends on creating and implementing new laws, educating people about their importance so that they will be engaged in the protection and management of these groves.

AcknowledgementThe authors thank DAV College, Amritsar for providing library and internet facilities to search the literature.