孟洁冰

Alpine skiing， skiing technique that evolved during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the mountainous terrain of the Alps in central Europe. Modern Alpine competitive skiing is divided into the so-called speed and technical events， the former comprising downhill skiing and the supergiant slalom， or super-G， and the latter including the slalom and giant slalom. The speed events are contested in single runs down long， steep， fast courses featuring few and widely spaced turns. The technical events challenge the skier’s ability to maneuver over courses marked by closely spaced gates through which both skis must pass; winners are determined by the lowest combined time in two runs on two different courses. The Alpine combined event consists of a downhill and a slalom race， with the winner having the lowest combined time.

Freestyle skiing combines speed， showmanship and the ability to perform aerial manoeuvres whilst skiing. It can consist of a skier performing aerial flips and spins， and can include skiers sliding rails and boxes on their skis. It is also commonly referred to as freeskiing， jibbing， as well as many other names around the world.

Forms of freestyle skiing include Aerial skiing， Mogul skiing， Ski ballet， Ski cross， Half-pipe skiing， and Slopestyle.

As for equipment， twin-tip skis are used in events such as slopestyle and half-pipe. Mogul skis are used in moguls and sometimes in aerials. Specially designed racing skis are used in ski cross. Ski bindings took a major design change to include plate bindings mounted to the bottom of the skiers boot to allow for multi-directional release.

Cross-country skiing is the oldest type of skiing. It emerged from a need to travel over snow-covered terrain and developed as a sport at the end of the 19th century. It is a form of skiing where skiers rely on their own locomotion to move across snow-covered terrain， rather than using ski lifts or other forms of assistance. Modern cross-country skiing is similar to the original form of skiing， from which all skiing disciplines evolved， including alpine skiing， ski jumping and Telemark skiing. Skiers propel themselves either by striding forward （classic style） or side-to-side in a skating motion （skate skiing）， aided by arms pushing on ski poles against the snow. The men’s event debuted at the first Winter Olympic Games in Chamonix in 1924 and the women’s event debuted at the 1952 Oslo Games.

Ski jumping is a winter sport which was firstly contested in Norway in the late 19th century， and it has been included at the Winter Olympics since 1924， while the first women’s event at the Olympics has been held in 2014.

The ski jumping venue consists of the jumping ramp （in-run）， take-off table， and a landing hill. Each jump is evaluated according to the distance traveled and the style performed. The distance score is related to the construction point （also known as the K-point）， which is a line drawn in the landing area and serves as a “target” for the competitors to reach. The score of each judge evaluating the style can reach a maximum of 20 points.

This sport， which has a long Olympic history， combines ski jumping and cross country skiing.

Nordic combined individual events have featured in every Games since the first Olympic Winter Games in Chamonix in 1924. Unsurprisingly， the sport has been dominated by the Norwegians， supported by the Finns. Indeed， it was not until 1960 that the Nordic grip on Olympic triumphs in this discipline was finally broken when West German Georg Thoma won the gold medal at Squaw Valley in 1960.In the early-2010s the International Ski Federation sanctioned no women’s competitions. However it was decided in early-November 2016 that women’s competitions were to be established at the Olympic Winter Games in 2022.

Snowboarding， winter sport with roots in skiing， surfing， and skateboarding where the primary activity is riding down any snow-covered surface while standing on a snowboard with feet positioned roughly perpendicular to the board and its direction， further differentiating it from skiing， in which riders face forward. Moreover， no poles are used as in skiing， and the majority of participants wear not hard but soft-to mid-flexing boots for support.

Men’s and women’s snowboarding made their Olympic debuts at the Nagano Games in 1998 with giant slalom and half-pipe competitions. The discipline proved an instant success and returned to Salt Lake City four years later with parallel giant slalom and half-pipe competitions. In Turin， snowboard cross also made its debut. In this event four riders race across a course studded with jumps， bumps and huge turns.

A biathlon competition consists of a race in which contestants ski through a cross-country trail system whose total distance is divided into either two or four shooting rounds， half in prone position， the other half standing. Depending on the shooting performance， extra distance or time is added to the contestant’s total running distance/time. The contestant with the shortest total time wins.

For each shooting round， the biathlete must hit five targets and receives a penalty for each missed target， which varies according to the competition rules.

In order to keep track of the contestants’ progress and relative standing throughout a race， split times （intermediate times） are taken at several points along the skiing track and upon finishing each shooting round. The large display screens commonly set up at biathlon arenas， as well as the information graphics shown as part of the TV picture， will typically list the split time of the fastest contestant at each intermediate point and the times and time differences to the closest runners-up.

Bobsleigh is a winter sport invented by the Swiss in the late 1860s in which teams make timed runs down narrow， twisting， banked， iced tracks in a gravity-powered sled. In 1924， a four-man race took place at the first ever Olympic Winter Games in Chamonix. A two-man event was added at the 1932 Lake Placid Games in a format that has remained to the present. The first women’s bobsleigh event—the two-woman bobsled—was held in 2002.

Tracks are made of concrete， coated with ice. They are required to have at least one straight section and one labyrinth （three turns in quick succession without a straight section）. Ideally， a modern track should be 1，200 to 1，300 metres long and have at least fifteen curves. Speeds may exceed 120 kilometres per hour. Some bobsleigh tracks are also used for luge and skeleton competition.

Individual runs down the course， or “heats”， begin from a standing start， with the crew pushing the sled for up to 50 metres （160 ft） before boarding. Over the rest of the course， a sleigh’s speed depends on its weight， aerodynamics， runners， the condition of the ice， and the skill of the pilot.

Race times are recorded in hundredths of seconds， so even seemingly minor errors—especially those at the beginning， which affect the remainder of the heat—can have a measurable impact on the final race standings.

Luge is one of the oldest winter sports. It involves competitors lying on their backs on a tiny sled with their feet stretched out in front of them， and racing down an icy track at speeds in the range of 140 km/h， without brakes. As well as the singles， there is a pairs event， with the larger of the two team members lying on top for better aerodynamics. Unlike bobsleigh， however， luge riders have no protection should they make an error.

In 1964， luge made its Olympic debut， at the Innsbruck Games， with a mixed event， a men’s event and a women’s event. The programme has not changed since then. Since 1976， this sport has taken place on the same track as bobsleigh.

The sport of luge requires an athlete to balance mental and physical fitness. To become an elite luger， a competitor must begin training at an early age and spend decades honing their skills. Physically， a luger must have strong neck， upper body， abdominal， and thigh muscles. Strength training is essential to withstand the extreme G-forces of tight turns at high speeds. Since lugers have very little protection other than a visor and helmet， they must be able to endure the physical pounding administered by the track when mistakes are made.

Skeleton is a winter sport featured in the Winter Olympics where the competitor rides head-first and prone （lying face down） on a flat sled. Like luge， the sport involves racing a sled down an icy track. Unlike luge， skeleton sleds are ridden face first. It is normally run on an ice track that allows the sled to gain speed by gravity. It was first contested at the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz and again in 1948 Winter Olympics， after which it was discontinued as an Olympic sport. Skeleton was reintroduced at the 2002 Winter Olympics， with both men’s and women’s events， and has been held in each Winter Olympic competition since. Skeleton is so-named as the first metal sleds introduced in 1892 were said to resemble a human skeleton. It is considered the world’s first sliding sport.

The format for Olympic skeleton involves two timed runs. The top men and women from the first run compete in the second run， which is held later that same day. The combined time of the two runs determines the final standings.

The sled can only be ridden in the prone position （face first， on the stomach）， and although the rider can leave the sled to push or move it， he or she must cross the finish line on the sled in order for the run to be considered valid.

Warming the sled’s metal runners or using any substance that improves sliding is prohibited. At the start of the race， the temperature of the runners must be within 4°C of the reference runner， which is exposed to the open air for one hour before the start of the competition.

Speed skating is a competitive form of ice skating in which the competitors race each other in travelling a certain distance on skates. Types of speed skating are long track speed skating， short track speed skating， and marathon speed skating. In the Olympic Games， long-track speed skating is usually referred to as just “speed skating”， while short-track speed skating is known as “short track”.

Speed skating appeared for the first time in 1924 at the first Olympic Winter Games in Chamonix. Initially， only men were allowed to participate. It was only at the Lake Placid Games in 1932 that women were authorised to compete in speed skating， which was then only a demonstration sport. It was not until the 1960 Games in Squaw Valley that women’s speed skating was officially included in the Olympic programme.

Races are run counter-clockwise on a 400-meter oval. The events almost always follow the European system， which consists of skaters competing two-by-two. Skaters must change lanes every lap. The skater changing from the outside lane to the inside has right-of-way. Skaters may be disqualified for false starts， impeding， and cutting inside the track. If a skater misses their race or falls they have the option to race their distance again. There are no heats or finals in long track， all rankings are by time.

Figure skating is a sport in which individuals， duos， or groups perform on figure skates on ice. It was the first winter sport included in the Olympics， in 1908. Olympic sports in figure skating comprise the following disciplines：

● Singles competition for men and women （who are referred to as “ladies” in ISU rulebooks）， wherein individual skaters perform jumps， spins， step sequences， spirals， and other elements in their programs.

● Pair skating teams consist of a woman and a man. Pairs perform elements that are specific to the discipline such as throw jumps， in which the man ‘throws’ the woman into a jump; lifts， in which the woman is held above the man’s head in one of various grips and positions; pair spins， in which both skaters spin together about a common axis; death spirals; and other elements such as side-by-side jumps and spins in unison.

● Ice dancing is again for couples consisting of a woman and a man skating together. Ice dance differs from pairs in focusing on intricate footwork performed in close dance holds， in time with the music. Ice dance lifts must not go above the shoulder.

The four disciplines of men’s singles， ladies’ singles， pair skating and ice dancing also appeared as part of a team event for the first time at the 2014 Winter Olympics.

Short track speed skating is a form of competitive ice speed skating. In competitions， multiple skaters （typically between four and six） skate on an oval ice track with a circumference of 111.111 metres （364.54 ft）. The rink itself is 60 metres （200 ft） by 30 metres （98 ft）， which is the same size as an international-sized ice hockey rink. Short track speed skating is the sister sport to long track speed skating.

In short track speed skating， athletes compete not against the clock， but against each other. This introduces the elements of strategy， bravery and skill needed for racing.

After having been a demonstration sport at the 1988 Games in Calgary， short track speed skating became part of the Olympic programme in Albertville in 1992， with two individual events and two relays. The discipline comprises men’s and women’s events. Since the 2006 Olympic Games in Turin， the programme of this discipline has included eight events.

In recent Games， China and South Korea have emerged to challenge North American dominance in this event. Indeed at the 2006 Turin Games， it was South Korea who emerged as the nation to beat， winning an incredible six gold medals， and 11 medals in total.

Ice hockey is a contact team sport played on ice， usually in a rink， in which two teams of skaters use their sticks to shoot a vulcanized rubber puck into their opponent’s net to score points. The sport is known to be fast-paced and physical， with teams usually consisting of six players each： one goaltender， and five players who skate up and down the ice trying to take the puck and score a goal against the opposing team.

Six-a-side men’s ice hockey has been on the programme of every edition of the Winter Games since 1924 in Chamonix. Women’s ice hockey was accepted as an Olympic sport in 1992， and made its official debut in 1998 in Nagano.

Within certain restrictions， players may redirect the puck with any part of their body. Players may not hold the puck in their hand and are prohibited from using their hands to pass the puck to their teammates， unless they are in the defensive zone. Players are also prohibited from kicking the puck into the opponent’s goal， though intentional redirections off the skate are permitted. Players may not intentionally bat the puck into the net with their hands.

Curling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice towards a target area which is segmented into four concentric circles. Two teams， each with four players， take turns sliding heavy， polished granite stones， also called rocks， across the ice curling sheet towards the house， a circular target marked on the ice. Each team has eight stones. The purpose is to accumulate the highest score for a game; points are scored for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the conclusion of each end， which is completed when both teams have thrown all of their stones. A game usually consists of eight or ten ends.

The curler can induce a curved path by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides， and the path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms who accompany it as it slides down the sheet， using the brooms to alter the state of the ice in front of the stone. Sweeping a rock makes it curl less， and decreases the friction that slows the rock down. A great deal of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each situation， and the skills of the curlers determine how close to the desired result the stone will achieve. This gives curling its nickname of “chess on ice”.

高山滑雪是19世纪末到20世纪初在欧洲中部阿尔卑斯山区形成的滑雪技术。现代高山滑雪比赛分为速度系列和技术系列，速度系列包括滑降和超级大回转，技术系列包括回转和大回转。速度系列以单次滑行成绩决出名次，赛道距离长、坡度陡、速度快、转弯少而幅度大。技术系列考验选手的滑行技巧，要求双板必须穿过赛道上紧密排列的旗门;选手要采用两条不同的路线，两次滑行成绩相加后，用时最少的选手为获胜者。全能赛包括滑降和回转赛，成绩累计后用时最少的选手获得冠军。

自由式滑雪是结合速度、表现力和空中技巧能力的滑雪运动，要求选手完成空翻和转体动作，或穿着滑雪板在由铁轨、箱子等构成的赛道上比赛。自由式滑雪通常被称为花式滑雪、极搏，在全球各地也有许多其他名称。

自由式滑雪项目包括空中技巧、雪上技巧、雪上芭蕾、障碍追逐、U型场地技巧和坡面障碍技巧。

在滑雪装备方面，花式滑雪板用于坡面障碍技巧和U型场地技巧等项目。而雪丘滑雪板用于雪上技巧，有时也用于空中技巧。特殊设计的竞技滑雪板用于障碍追逐。滑雪板固定器进行了重要的设计调整，把板式固定器安装到选手雪靴的底部，可以从多个方向进行脱卸。

越野滑雪是最古老的滑雪方式，源于人类雪地旅行的需要，在19世纪末发展成为一项体育运动。这项运动需要选手依靠自己的滑行翻过雪坡，而不是借助滑雪缆车或其他辅助工具。……