梁昊译

【譯者言】   我们教机器辅助翻译课的体验是，翻译软件对当代英文的文法解读仅偶尔出错，所产出的中文译本，文法上也基本通顺。机器译文的一个常见问题是，英译中时所提供的中文对应词经常出错或不太恰当。面对一些常用英文词的多个中文对应词，机器的解决办法似乎是选择最常见的中文对应词，例如将ideal译成“理想”，people译成“人”，share译成“分享”。由于这种简单化应对方式常造成谬误或不当之处，因此人工翻译在今后相当长的时间里仍大有用武之地。在深度学习能让机器达到专业翻译的水平之前，翻译教师不用担心自己的饭碗会被机器抢走。

Education in Athens

Introduction

The Athenian ideal3 was paideia4： harmonious and natural development （limited to men only）. The Greeks may have been among the first people5 to conceive of broadly available education as important to communal well-being. The Athenians shared6 the Chinese traditional approach to learning through memorization7 of designated classic texts. But in addition they gave special emphasis to two quite different principles： that effectiveness8 in oral argument was more important than writing， and that all （male） citizens9 needed to acquire at least minimal verbal and numerical （mathematical） skills10 so that Athens could maintain its dominance in commerce and its influence over less powerful city-states. This training11 sought to guarantee the basis of effective citizenship， including gymnastics12 and military preparedness13.

1. Literacy and numeracy

These basic skills were taught in an analytic14 fashion by focusing first on the basic components and then going on to progressively more complex combinations. Here is an account from a boy about how he learned to read15 in the 1st century BCE：

When we learn to read， we first learn the names of letters， then their shapes and values， then the syllables and their properties， after this the words and their inflections （required by Greek grammar）... . Then we begin to read and write， slowly at first， and syllable by syllable. When， in due process16 of time， the forms of words are fixed in our mind， we read easily and get through any book handed to us without stumbling17， with incredible ease and speed.

Commentary： Children today still begin learning Indo-European languages by focusing on the letters of the alphabet.

2. Classic texts and memorization

According to Plato， the next steps involved extensive reading and memorization. As soon as a boy had learned his letters， and was beginning to understand what is written， they put into his hands the works of great poets like Homer or Hesiod18. “In these are contained many admonitions， and many tales， and praises of ancient famous men， which he is required to learn by heart19， in order that he may desire to be like them.” Epics like those of Homer focused attention on heroic individuals like Achilles who were held up20 as examples for admiration and imitation.

3. Music

Plato describes learning music as the next step：

The teachers of the lyre21 （small Greek harp） take care that22 their young disciple is temperate and gets into no mischief and when they have taught him the use of the lyre， they introduce him to the poems of other excellent poets， who are the lyrical poets23; and these they set to music， and make their harmonies and rhythms quite familiar to the childrens souls24， in order that they may learn to be more gentle and harmonious and rhythmical and so fitted for speech and action; for the life of man25 in every part has need of harmony and rhythm.

Commentary： Harmony， then， implies a broad concept of balanced development. Music brought the pupil into harmony with himself by bringing him into harmony with the larger outside world. The Pythagorean School of thinkers， which greatly influenced Plato， analyzed the nodes of vibration in a single string as the mathematical basis of harmonic intervals26 （2：1， the octave; 3：2， the fifth; 4：3， the fourth， etc.）. They also extended these same ratios to explain the total harmony of the universe.

4. Physical development

During adolescence， boys were trained in gymnastics and competitive sports. Wrestling was particularly important， joined by running， discus and javelin throwing， long jumping， and some other track-and-field competitions that still survive in the modern Olympics. These competitions were performed naked or at most with a loin cloth. Older men often gathered to watch and to encourage their favorites27. The goal of physical training， according to Plato， was in order that their bodies might better minister to the virtuous mind and that these young men might not， through bodily weakness， play the coward in war or on any other occasion.

All the early training aimed at balanced development of the body and the mind， culminating in areté （being the most successful one can be as a human）28.

5. Military training

Though the program details changed from time to time， by age 18 able-bodied young men entered two years of military training. The key to Greek military success was a highly disciplined battle formation called a phalanx， a square of closely packed hoplites （citizen-soldiers） formed by 10 to 20 soldiers on each side， armed with long spears and moving， even running， as a unit.

As long as the soldiers discipline held， a phalanx was likely to defeat any other battle formation known in its day. Often Greek city-states fought each other， in which case the phalanx with superior discipline and coordination won， Sparta providing the model. This phase of Greek education was， then， not incidental29 but crucial to the well-being of the city-state. By the end of his military training， a young man assumed full citizenship， remaining on call for military duty whenever the Assembly should so decide.

6. “Higher education”

After age 20， the sons of wealthy families were likely to have the means30 to engage private tutors or to join one of the upper-level schools31 that emerged in the 4th century BCE. The first Greek proto-universities were founded in Athens by and for philosophers. Plato around 387 BCE opened the Academy32， which was named for the olive grove outside Athens where these students originally met. This institution survived for 900 years. The second was the Lyceum， begun in 335 BCE by Aristotle， who liked to walk about as he lectured. His students were then called Peripatetics （Greek： “those who walk about”）. A covered colonnade in Athens， a stoa， gave its name to a competing school33 called the Stoics， whose philosophy came into greater prominence under the Romans.

Thus from the outset， there has been a certain ambiguity in the West about the idea of a school. The word could refer to the place where instruction took place or to the school of thought that was dominant there.

Note that， starting with the Greeks， Western thinkers， unlike their Chinese counterparts， often sought to establish their independence of the masters who had initiated them into intellectual life34.

The masters founded schools which then felt free to subscribe35 to competing intellectual approaches. The resulting agonistic diversity36 is one reason that it is hard to generalize about their views.

雅典的教育

导读

古代雅典人的教育理念是“男童教养”（παιδε?α，拉丁文转写是paideia或paedeia），即为城邦培养出理想的邦民。希腊人也许是最早认识到普及教育对公共福祉很重要的民族之一。在学习方式上，雅典人与中国古人一样，也是通过背会指定的古典文本来学习。此外，他们还特别强调两条十分不同的原则：一、在辩论中说服对方比写作更重要;二、所有（男性）邦民需要具备起码的读写和算术（数学）能力，这样雅典才能保持自己商业上的优势和对于弱小城邦的影响。这种教养包含赤体训练和战备训练，目的是确保每一个邦民能有效履行自己的义务。

1. 读写与算数

这些基础技能的教学以分析综合的方式进行，先聚焦基本成分，然后逐渐进入复杂组合。下面是公元前1世纪的一个男孩描述他是怎样学会识读的：

学识读时，我們首先学会字母的名称，然后是其形式和音值，然后是音节及其特性，之后是单词及其形态变化（这是希腊语文法所要求的）……接着我们开始读写。起初进展缓慢，一个一个音节地学。到了一定时候，词的形态变化已经固定在我们脑子里，我们就能轻松读完交给我们的任何一本书，毫不磕绊，轻而易举，速度惊人。

点评：今天儿童学习印欧语言时，关注点一开始仍然是字母表中的字母。

2. 古典文本与背书

据柏拉图的说法，接下来的环节是泛读和背书。学童一学会认字母，开始明白文本的内容，老师就会把荷马或赫谢德（《神谱》作者）之类大诗人的作品交给他。“这些作品中有许多劝诫、故事和对古代名人的歌颂。老师要求学童把这些作品背得滚瓜烂熟，因为只有这样他才会渴望成为作品中的那些人。”荷马史诗之类的作品着重讲述阿喀琉斯等英雄人物的故事，把他们树立为崇拜和效仿的榜样。

3. 音乐

柏拉图把学习音乐说成下一个环节：

莱尔琴（古希腊的一种七弦竖琴）教师陶冶其学童温文尔雅，不调皮捣乱;一旦学童学会弹琴，便引导他阅读其他优秀诗人，即所谓莱尔诗人的诗。老师会给这些诗配上音乐，让学童的心灵熟悉其和声与节奏，这样他的举止就可以变得更文雅、更和谐、更有节奏，适合演讲和行动;因为人生方方面面都需要和谐与节奏。

点评：如此说来，和谐是一个平衡发展的宽泛概念。音乐让学童与大千世界达成和谐，从而达成学童的自我和谐。毕达哥拉斯学派的思想家（该学派曾对柏拉图有过巨大影响），分析了一根琴弦振动时所发音的各个节点，以此作为确定和声音程的数学基础（2：1，八度;3：2，五度;4：3，四度，等等）。他们还拓展了这些相同比例的应用范围，用以解释宇宙的总体和谐。

4. 身体发育

男孩在青春期要接受赤体和竞技运动训练。摔跤尤其重要，还有跑步、铁饼、标枪、跳远和其他一些田径比赛项目，这些比赛至今仍是现代奥林匹克运动会的项目。运动员参加这些比赛时赤身裸体，顶多系一块遮羞布。年长一些的男人常常聚在一起观看，为自己喜欢的赛手加油。在柏拉图看来，人们进行身体训练的目的是让其身体能更好地服侍有德行的心智，让年轻人不致因为身体孱弱而在战时或其他任何时刻成为懦夫。

所有早期训练的目的都是身体与心智的均衡发展，最终达到卓越（areté），即一个人所能达到的最佳状态。

5. 军事训练

尽管训练计划的细节随着时代的变迁而变化，体格健全的青年男子年满18岁时都得接受为期两年的军训。希腊人打胜仗的关键是其方阵。这是一种纪律严明、队形密集的民兵军阵，阵的每一边由10至20名手持长矛的士兵组成，形成一个作战单位，步行或跑步前行。

只要士兵遵守军纪，这种方阵很可能击败当时已知的任何一种作战队形。希腊城邦常常彼此争战，这种情况下，纪律更严明、步调更一致的方阵取胜，斯巴达就是一个典范。因此，希腊教育的这一阶段并非可有可无，而是对城邦的福祉起决定作用。军训完成之后，一个青年男子就获得了完全的邦民身份，一旦邦民大会作出决议，他要随时应召服役。

6. “高等教育”

20岁之后，富裕家庭的儿子很可能有钱聘请家庭教师或进入一所高一等的学校。希腊大学的原型最早于公元前4世纪出现在雅典，由哲学家创办，目的是培养哲学家。公元前387年前后，柏拉图创办“学院”，这一名称来自柏拉图最初在雅典城外给学生上课的橄榄园（名为阿卡德米亚：Akademia），该学院存在了900年。第二所高校是亚里士多德于公元前335年创办的吕克昂学园。亚里士多德上课时喜欢四处走动，所以他的学生后来被称为漫步学派弟子。另一个与之争锋的学派称为斯多葛派，名称源自雅典一种叫作斯多厄的有顶柱廊，其哲学在罗马人统治下显赫一时。

由此可知，西方关于school的观念从最一开始一直就有一定歧义。这个词既可以指称教学场所，也可以指称在那里占主导地位的思想学派。

需要注意的是，从古希腊人开始，西方思想家就与同时代的中国思想家不同，他们常致力于建立自己的独立性，而不是依附于指引他们步入思想领域的老师。

老师创立学派，之后该学派的人便可以自由采纳与之竞争的思想观念，由此形成百家争鸣的局面。我们今天很难对各家观点一以概之，原因之一就在于此。

1北京外国语大学英语学院讲师;1999年获北京外国语大学英语语言文学硕士学位，2007年获北京外国语大学英语语言文学博士学位。研究领域是英中对比语言学、英语史和语法化。  2北京外国语大学长青学者、外国语言研究所教授，广西师范大学漓江学者、外国语学院教授;1985年北京外国语大学英语语言文学硕士毕业，1996年获英国剑桥大学英语历史语言学博士学位。研究领域是语言学、英中对比与翻译、双语词典学。  3 ideal此处的意思是a conception of something… as an object to be realized or aimed at（OED ideal n. 1a条下），译成“理想”显然不合适，因为paideia是一种理念而不是一种理想。本篇的主题是教育，因此这里译为“教育理念”。  4 paideia源于希腊文παιδε?α，意思是child-rearing（OED paedeia条下），指对希腊民族品格的塑造（the shaping of Greek character，见Werner Jaeger. 1946. Paideia， the Ideals of Greek Culture， vol.1： ix）。据此，我们把原文冒号后的说明译为“为城邦培养出理想的邦民”;原文注明仅限于男性，因此这里译为“男童教养”。在讨论古希腊文明的西方文献里，paideia具有不可替代的地位，由于很难在英文里找到精确的对应词，英文文献中一般保留希腊文原文并加以解释，我们也照此办理。  5 people這里指民族，显然不是指机器译文的“人”。

6 shared此处不能像机器那样译为“分享”。  7 memorization这里只能根据古代希腊和中国的历史情况译成“背会”，不能像机器那样译成“记忆”。  8 effectiveness这个词的意思虽然是“有效性”，但我们通常不说辩论的有效性，只说是否有说服力。  9 citizen本义是an inhabitant of a city or （often） of a town（OED citizen n.1条下）。古希腊各国以城为邦，称为城邦（city-state），城邦的居民即邦民。机器译文里的“公民”是近代概念。  10小学教授的verbal and numerical skills就是读写和算术技能。机器译为“语言和数学”，“语言”含义过于宽泛，“数学”显得过于学术。  11尽管training这个词有“训练”的意思，此处译作“训练”容易让人联想到职业训练，与本文所阐述的教育宗旨不符，所以译作“教养”。  12 gymnastics源自希腊文γυ?ν?σιον，意思是to train naked（OED gymnastics条下）。当时男童进行体能训练时是赤体。机器译文“体操”犯了用现代术语翻译古代事物的错误。  13 military preparedness这里指战备训练，保证一旦发生战争，男子可以随时应召出征。机器译文“军事准备”让人难以看出其与训练的关系。  14根据接下来的解释，这里analytic译为“分析综合”。机械地译成“分析”，不易于对接下文。

15 read本身既可表示识读，又可表示阅读。这里说的是刚入小学的孩子，因此译成“识读”。  16这里in due process的意思是：at the right time， not before（OALD due adj. . In due course条下），因此译成“到了一定时候”。机器译文“在适当的时候”意思不确切。  17识读如同行路，念书时结结巴巴如同走路时磕磕绊绊。机器译文“不费吹灰之力”未保留原文意象，也有些夸大其词。  18 Hesiod根据原文发音译为“赫谢德”，用随文夹注的形式说明其身份，便于读者理解。

19 learn by heart机器译文“用心学习”是误译。  20将原文的被动式用主动式译出，更符合中文习惯。DL（DeepLTranslator，以下简称DL）的“被当作崇拜和模仿的榜样”和GT（Google Translate，以下简称GT）的“被举为赞美和模仿的榜样”读起来都显得生硬。  21 the lyre莱尔琴。DL仅用单字“琴”，GT的“七弦琴”也未译出“莱尔”，这样就无法与下文the lyrical poets衔接。  22 that引导的从句是take care要达到的结果，这里可以译成“陶冶”或“教导”。GT的“要小心”和DL的“注意”都不太确切。  23 lyrical poets古希腊的莱尔诗人，不同于写戏剧、英雄史诗及挽歌的诗人。lyric poetry特指在莱尔琴伴奏下吟唱的诗歌。机器译文“抒情诗人”无法让读者看到这种诗或诗人与莱尔琴的关系。  24 = make the childrens souls quite familiar with their harmonies and rhythms，转换后的表达式更近似中文的表达习惯。DL的“使他们的和谐和节奏对孩子们的灵魂相当熟悉”和GT的“使他们的和声和节奏对孩子们的灵魂非常熟悉”都显得生硬;另外，souls在此处指学童的心灵而不是他们的“灵魂”。

25 GT的“生活”和DL的“生命”都不够确切。  26 harmonic intervals和声音程，指两个同时发出的音之间的音高差异。  27 encourage此处的意思是加油鼓劲，favorites此处指观众喜欢的赛手。DL的“鼓励他们的宠儿”和GT的“鼓励他们的最爱”都与语境不符。

28 areté的意思是：fulfillment， living up to ones full potential（Wikipedia areté条下），即“（人的）最佳状态”。原文括号里的释义successful不准确。   29 incidental这里的意思是：happening in connection with something else， but not as important as it， or not intended（OALD incidental， adj. 1条下），即“可有可无”。机器译文“偶然的”不确切。

30 the means这里指the money that a person has（OALD means n. 2 条下），即“有钱”。机器译文“有能力”意思不精确。  31 the upper-level schools高一等的学校，即下文所说的各个学院。GT的“高等学校”和DL的“高级学校”都未能准确传达此处upper的确切意思。  32 Academy斜体，前面加定冠词the，特指柏拉图开设的学院。  33 school此处应理解为“学派”（见下文school of thought），不能译为“学校”。

34我们把independence of拆分成两句话，译成“自己的独立性，而不是依附于……”，行文更顺畅。GT的译文“建立与使他们进入知识生活的大师的独立性”显示翻译软件对原文的解析出了差错;DL的拆分译法“他们的独立性，不受那些让他们进入知识生活的大师的影响”，行文虽然通畅，“不受影响”却是误译。  35 subscribe此处的意思是：to give ones assent to a statement， opinion， proposal， scheme， or the like （OED subscribe v. 7條下），可以译成“采纳”或“赞同”。机器译文“选择”“接受”都不精确。  36 agonistic的意思是：polemic， combative， striving to overcome in argument（OED agonistic adj. 2条下），即“争锋”或“争鸣”;diversity的意思是“多种多样”，我们战国时期的百家就是“多家”的意思，因此这里译为“百家争鸣的局面”。DL的“激动人心的多样性”和GT的“激动性多样性”都是误译。