李在鑫

1 Introduction

To uncover the mystery of different aesthetic perception in poetry from different cultures，a comparison of several similar rhyming rules has been made between Tang poetry and Shakespeare s Sonnets since both of them represent the crowning achievement in their history of poetry.Tang poetry is often seen as the Golden Age of Chinese poetry and has had an ongoing influence on world literature and modern poetry.Shakespeare s sonnets are regarded as a huge hit that swept through the Renaissance，pushing the rhyme scheme，the 14 lines，and the meter to a booming season.Therefore，they are representative enough to showcase the difference in an apparent and direct way.Meanwhile，the thesis also aims to provide a new angle for readers to appreciate poetry from different cultures and encourage them to explore the deeper connotation beneath the linguistic forms of poetry.

2 Metre in Chinese and English Poetry

Types And Significance of Metre in Chinese and English Poetry.

Metre in Chinese and English poetry is largely distinct because of their classification standards.

Chinese is an isolating language with plentiful monosyllables，which especially stands out in the from of ancient Chinese：one syllable usually corresponds with one word.Thus，metre in classical Chinese poetry can be roughly divided into three aspects.The first is level and oblique tones（consisting of Flat or High Level Tone，Rising or High-Rising Tone，Falling-Rising or Low Tone and Falling or High-Falling Tone）.The second is antithesis（a figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas，words，clauses，or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure），regarded as an extremely strict regulation，especially in metrical poetry.The last one is rhyme，which means a repetition of similar sounds （or the same sound） in two or more words，most often in the final syllables of lines in poems and songs.Meanwhile，all of them are partly determined by two peculiar characters of Chinese phonetics.One is the ascendant monosyllabic morphemes in Chinese language，the other is pitches of voice in Chinese Phonetic Alphabet.

Dissimilarly，English is a typical kind of inflectional language.Therefore，the metre of English poetry is distinguished by the number of syllables and the positions of stressed syllables.There are six forms：iambic（ a short syllable followed by a long syllable ），trochee（ a metrical foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one），anapaest（ consisting of two short syllables followed by a long one），dactyl（a long syllable followed by two short syllables，as determined by syllable weight），amphibrach（consisting of a long syllable between two short syllables），and spondee（consisting of two long syllables）.Moreover，the rhythmic unit of foot is also regularly used in English poetry.

Metre in both Chinese and English poetry is as important as their brilliant functions in modifying the content.Just as Guo Moruo，a Chinese litterateur，said：“The life of poetry all depends on its graceful bearing which is elusory.” ，we can get closer to the real charm of poetry.Similarly，the metre s functions in English and Chinense poetry are quite abundant like developing the musicality or unfolding the poems original meanings.

3 Features of Metre in Tang Poetry and Shakespeare s Sonnets

3.1 Features of Metre in Tang Poetry

Typically，poetry in Tang Dynasty features the five syllable poem and the seven syllable poem.Both of them are characterized by strict rhyming rules.Firstly，the syllables sit in even position always alternate the level and oblique tones.Secondly，“Dui” and “Nian” should also appear alternatively.Here，“Dui” refers to a contrary of the second and fourth syllables between the former and the latter sentence in a couplet.While “nian” refers to a coherence of the second and fourth syllables between the former and the latter sentence connecting two couplets.

Here is a sample to showcase the principles and regulations of metre in the five syllable poem.In the form，“×” means Flat or High Level Tone and Rising or High-Rising Tone;“√” means Falling-Rising or Low Tone and Falling or High-Falling Tone; “ the circle ” means that the level and oblique tones can change freely;“the square” means that the level and oblique tones cannot change freely.If one of them changes，other syllables may vary as well.

過故人庄

【唐】孟浩然

故人具鸡黍，邀我至田家。

绿树村边合，青山郭外斜。

开轩面场圃，把酒话桑麻。

待到重阳日，还来就菊花。

3.2 Features of Metre in Shakespeare s Sonnets

Shakespeare s Sonnets follow the strict rhyming rules of Petrarchan sonnets，where iambic pentameter matters most.Two adjacent syllables of which one is stressed and the other is not consisting a foot （usually five foots serve as a routine），making alterations to form a rhythm.In a sonnet，the changes of the foots are supposed to be thoroughly coordinate.Here s the sample of iambic pentameter in Shakespeare s Sonnets：a b a b c d c d e f e f g g.Take Sonnet 2 for example：

a：When forty winters shall besiege thy brow （ /a?/）

b：And dig deep trenches in thy beauty s field，（ /ld/）

a：Thy youth s proud livery，so gazed on now，（ /a?/）

b：Will be a tottered weed of small worth held.（ /ld/）

c：Then being asked where all thy beauty lies-（ /a?z/）

d：Where all the treasure of thy lusty days-（ /e?z/）

c：To say within thine own deep-sunken eyes（ /a?z/）

d：Were an all-eating shame and thriftless praise.（ /e?z/）

e：How much more praise deserved thy beauty s use，（ /ju：z/）

f：If thou couldst answer，“This fair child of mine（ /a?n/）

e：Shall sum my count，and make my old excuse”-（ /ju：z/）

f：Proving his beauty by succession thine.（ /a?n/）

g：This were to be new made when thou art old，（ /??ld/）

g：And see thy blood warm when thou feel st it cold.（ /??ld/）

Here，the poem is placed in a standard form of iambic pentameter and shares a similarity with European sonatas in rhythm，being a mixture of heated high pitch and soft low sound.It causes a sense of rhythmic beauty and makes readers more willing to read the poem following the amazing rhythm.

4 Comparison of Similar Rhyming Rules in Practical Uses

4.1 Repetition

Repetition is the simple repeating of a word，within a sentence or a poetical line，with no particular placement of the words，in order to secure emphasis.

In Tang poetry，repetition can be flexibly applied to a poem to create unexpected effects.For instance：

黄鹤楼

【唐】崔颢

昔人已乘黄鹤去，此地空余黄鹤楼。

黄鹤一去不复返，白云千载空悠悠。

晴川历历汉阳树，芳草萋萋鹦鹉洲。

日暮乡关何处是？烟波江上使人愁。

In the first couplet and the first sentence of the second couplet，“Huang He（黃鹤）” appears three times，which represents the repetition of a word consisting of two syllables.It is set to enhance the readability and leave the primary tune and rhythm in readers mind.Meanwhile，readers have no time to notice the overlapping appearance but to feel the syllables flow more brightly and more elegantly.Thus，they are eager to read hurriedly by special momentum out of the rhythm.Also，in the second sentence of the second couplet and the third couplet，the repetition of a word made up of one syllable also works in the poem.Here，each group contains two characters with the same pronunciation and meaning like “You You（悠悠）”，“Li Li （历历）” and “Qi Qi（萋萋）” ，which succeed in emphasizing the particular effects conveyed by the words，which respectively represent the long-lasting time，the wide visual field and the exuberant weeds.

In Shakespeare s Sonnets，repetition can be also used to enhance the subject of the poem.Take Sonnet 18 for example：

So long as men can breathe or eyes can see，So long lives this and this gives life to thee.

Usually，repetition of sonnets can be found in the last sentence and here Sonnet 18 is without any exception，where “this” appears twice and the conjunction “and” exactly sits between them.In the view of syntax，both of them serve as the subject of each clause.Meanwhile，the former is an inverted sentence while the latter uses normal word order.Thus，when readers read the sentence，the former “this” firstly attracts their attention and then the latter one deepens the impression，pushing them to remember the key word and provoke them to ponder.In fact，“this” refers to the key of this poem，of which being taken advantage by the poet to express praise for his lover and he thinks it is the poem that gives the beloved eternal life and beauty.By setting a repetition，readers are getting more aware of the subject.

In conclusion，we can see that both Tang poetry and Shakespeare s Sonnets use repetition to emphasize something and create an audiovisual effect.However，there still remains difference in the form.In Tang Poetry，repetition can be used depending on the syllable while that in Shakespeare s Sonnets is only accessible in a complete word or a group of words.

4.2 Alliteration

Alliteration is a figure of speech and a stylistic literary device which is identified by the repeated sound of the first or second letter in a series of words，or the repetition of the same letter sounds in stressed syllables of a phrase.

In Tang Poetry，alliteration mostly appears in two characters with the same consonant.e.g.

望月有感

【唐】白居易

時难年荒世业空，弟兄羁旅各西东。

田园寥落干戈后，骨肉流离道路中。

吊影分为千里雁，辞根散作九秋蓬。

共看明月应垂泪，一夜乡心五处同。

In the third and forth line of this Qilv（eight-line Chinese poems with seven characters to a line），I select out two words “Liao Luo（寥落）” and “Liu Li（流离）”.Pay attention to the Pinyin（Chinese romanization scheme for Mandarin） of these two words，all of their consonants are the same one” l ”，which is exactly an alliteration.Obviously，alliteration in this poem propels the rhythm sensation and makes the poem fluent to read.Most importantly，these two characters with the same consonant are extremely close in meaning，stressing the unique emotion—loneliness，adding stronger sentimental color.

Nevertheless，alliteration in English poem is not limited in two words that have similar meaning.It can be used in words that are different in meaning or are even several words apart.In Shakespeare s Sonnets，the poet actively employs such a device to make the alterations of different sounds repeat pleasantly.Here s an example of Sonnet 9：

The world will wail thee，like a makeless wife;

The world will be thy widow，and still weep，That thou no form of thee hast left behind，When every private widow well may keep.

Citing as examples the first line s “world—will—wail—wife”and the second s “world — will — widow — weep”.Here，consonant /w/ serves as the rhyme，whose pronunciation has such a mournful sound effect that readers are personally on the scene，feeling the worldwide anguish for those who possess no children.At the same time，the harsh，hard sound in the poems are repeated by the emphasis at the first part of every word.Consequently，the poet s mood becomes increasingly tense and excited.

To sum up，the essence of alliteration in Tang Poetry and Shakespeare s Sonnets bears little difference and both of them are efficient in controlling poets emotion.However，on account of different linguistic features，discrepancy can t be avoided. Difference lies in the restrictions of their usage，making it more flexible in Shakespeare s Sonnets and more regulated in Tang Poetry .

4.3 Assonance

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences，and together with alliteration and consonance serves as one of the building blocks of verse.

In Tang Poetry，poets often use assonance in two characters sharing one vowel of the two connecting lines.Here is an explicit example：

《題贺知章故居》

【唐】温庭筠

废砌翳薛荔，枯湖无菰蒲。

老媪宝葆草，愚儒输逋租。

In the first line of this poem，the contiguous characters “Qi （砌） ” ，“Yi （翳） ” and “Li （荔） ”use an assonance by the repetition of vowel “i”.Meanwhile，the second line goes to “u” as characters of “Ku （枯） ” ，“Hu （湖） ”，“Wu （无） ”and“Gu （菰） ”.In a similar way，the third line is an assonance of vowel “ao”like the words “Lao （老）”，“ Bao （宝）”，“Bao （葆）” and “Cao （草）”.Moreover，the assonance of “u” comes to the last line like words “Ru （儒）”，“Shu （输）”，“Bu （逋）” and “Zu （租）”.In the poem above，a series of assonance keep the consistency of words and lines，making it more fluent and entertaining to read.Furthermore，they link up the images one by one in a musical way，and a strong sense of loneliness is gradually revealed.

As an equally important phonetic device in Shakespeare s Sonnets，assonance is supposed to make language musical and rhythmical.Let s turn to Sonnet 33 to have a look.

Full many a glorious morning have I seen，

Flatter the mountain tops with sovereign eye，

Kissing with golden face the meadows green，

Gilding pale streams with heavenly alchemy.

Assonance in the sonnet is inclined to have an impact on the overall tone.For instance，words from the first sentence like “glorious” and “morning” use an assonance by the repetition of vowel /?/; words from the second sentence like “top” and “sovereign” use an assonance by the repetition of vowel /?/.The pronunciation of vowels is so full that the poem is polished with a strong sense of rhythmic beauty.Meanwhile，the repetition of such strong beats creates a magnificent and immense ambience，apparently uncovering the poet s enthusiasm.

Surprisingly，the application of assonance in Tang Poetry and Shakespeare s Sonnets shares great similarity in form and function.Firstly，both of them manage to disclose the rhythmic beauty of languages and impress readers a lot.Secondly，they are capable of connecting the images in the poem so as to create an audio-visual feast for readers.Moreover，the basic tune of a poem can be almost set during the first array of assonance applied in the beginning.

5 Conclusion

This thesis has investigated the similarities and differences of rhyming rules as well as aesthetic perception between both Chinese and English poetry with the angel of Tang Poetry and Shakespeare s Sonnets.It reveals a hidden but beautiful world for us in the field of poetry since the aim，which is to make out how the construction of rhythm and rhyme in poetry from different cultures brings readers diverse experience and plentiful cognition of aesthetics has been achieved.Firstly，more delicate and creative design of rhyming rules behind the poetry from different cultures has been revealed directly and logically，which may not only encourage more individuals to deepen the study，but also allow them to acquire a unique and profound connotation of poetry.Secondly，the diversified national personality appearing from the study of poetry may assist to enhance mutual understanding between the two groups of people.By the way，all of the findings from the thesis are practical and objective since the features and styles of a national language serve as the carrier in the investigation，there s no suspicion of solely glorifying any culture to make misunderstanding.

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