弗朗西斯卡·弗拉索达提/Francesca Frassoldati

徐知兰 译/Translated by XU Zhilan

建筑学与对尺度、精准性和可预测性的吸纳

弗朗西斯卡·弗拉索达提/Francesca Frassoldati

徐知兰 译/Translated by XU Zhilan

“在中世纪后期和文艺复兴时期，欧洲出现新的现实世界模型。定量模型刚刚开始取代古代的定性模型。哥白尼和伽利略、许多相继自学成才通晓如何建造优质大炮的工匠、那些在地图上绘制出新发现大陆的海岸线的制图者，还有管理着新兴帝国的官僚、运营东西印度公司的企业家，以及部署和控制着新兴财富流向的银行家等等——这些人都在以定量的方式理解现实世界。”[1]

尽管克罗斯比1）的著作既没有针对建设活动，也没有就建筑学进行具体讨论，然而作为14世纪和15世纪欧洲重要特征的文化与技术革新，也是建筑设计作为独立专业之肇始的标识。各种建筑史和艺术史的研究已经探讨了若干问题，包括在空间的表达中常规性地采用尺寸标注方法，纸张相对便宜的价格使它成为可随身携带的轻便选择，从而推动了用草图来表达空间概念的方式，以及为信息共享的目的将图像固定印制在媒介上所产生的影响。同样与之相关的是，技术创新在思想和理论传播方式中所扮演的角色，例如机械印刷，还包括与文字编辑成果的特定结构的关联。一场就古典主义和谐形式的理想原则进行的争论——配以视觉信息的辅助——得到了广泛传播，它迅速地取代了只有为数不多的几份誊写稿的古代手卷，这些手卷几乎没有任何配图，并因此发展出了以定性描述和比较方法为基础的叙事方式。

实际上，认知世界的定性概念和定量概念之间的冲突甚至延续至今天建筑学进行描述、沟通和讨论的方式中。中世纪时期的智者先贤与旅行家们的著作和信件表达了以固有性质思考和描述世界的方式。在当时，建筑学包含了不证自明的信息——尽管在我们看来，阅读那些著作犹如参与一场没有指明规则的游戏。不同的是，从复杂现实世界的建成形式中抽象出规则和规律并进行思考，或将各种思想组织为因果关系或关联关系，则是迄今为止建筑学司空见惯的手法。我们应该牢记，形成这些“自然而然”的推理方法所必须的一系列前提在15世纪之前的欧洲还尚未出现。它们产生自学术共同体的出现和由受过教育的被资助者所构成的组织，这些人更容易在脑海中对建成空间的图纸进行解读和视觉化——或甚至从世俗的建筑物中进行抽象。这两个概念——即专业共同体的出现和建立在视觉形象基础上的简化抽象能力，其实相辅相成——由此可以得出结论，在建筑学中，我们不仅有可能抽象地探讨无法直接检验的经验（无论这些假设是否可被证明是正确的，唯一最重要的是：古代古典主义的建筑废墟作为整体在图纸上进行推敲而无需被重建的经验），也可以对其具有的现实程度足以被模拟、计算和批评的假设事件进行抽象的探讨，这是值得深思的。

西方世界建筑学专业的标准化过程就建立在这一前提下。如果说今天影像制作的技术似乎正在质疑我们观察世界的方式，并改变了我们的视觉环境，那么科技革新则对形成于文艺复兴时期的建筑观察原则和建筑学训练方法所仰赖的社会文化框架提出了挑战[2]。

有3个具体的理念值得我们进一步进行关注：（1）认为建成作品脱离了采用符号系统图纸预先布置的概念；（2）在脑海中以具有尺度的清晰图像进行设计的行为本身，表达现实世界的哲学完美，并以描述性的再创造为特征； （3）以建立在视觉基础上的推理过程的传播作为社会技术的创新。

象征性语言vs视觉化表达

“通常，中世纪时期的文稿对两座建筑进行比较时，现代读者可能会疑惑作者如何能看出两者之间有任何相似之处。”[3]2“中世纪时期奇怪地缺乏准确度的描述不仅出现在对建筑图案的描述上，也出现在对所有几何形式的描述中……看起来似乎对某些形状的模仿并不是为其本身的目的，而是为了它所暗示的其他事物[3]7-8。”

在以采用符号标注的设计和透视图表达方案之前，人们利用其他方式表现建筑。今天的这种方式以其对各种相对的和相关的对比概念或现场试错检验的依赖代表了颇为有趣的文化前沿。尽管商业协议中通常会非常精确地指定某些建筑材料，但对建筑形式与结构却不会这样深入探讨；在那些比较性的描述中——至少在克劳泰默尔2）的作品所提到的例子里——在根据中世纪的文献认为具有类似性质的现存建筑中之间，我们没能找到任何精确的几何对应关系。这些中世纪的语言描述把一系列单一要素从建筑中孤立出来，如为了把一些建筑与某些伟大的先例定义为“相似的”或是受其启发，建筑物内部某些位置上的柱子或柱墩数量就比完整的建筑布局更重要（如在克劳泰默尔研究的圣墓教堂3）一例中）。笼统地说，在中世纪的建筑学中，图纸是边缘事务，并且在图纸和建筑之间也缺乏我们所谓的“精确”（也就是可测量的）对应关系。

"During the late Middle Ages and Renaissance a new model of reality emerged in Europe. A quantitative model was just beginning to displace the ancient qualitative model. Copernicus and Galileo, the artisans who taught themselves to make good cannon after another, the cartographers who mapped the coasts of newly contacted lands, the bureaucrats and entrepreneurs who managed the new empires and East and West India companies,the bankers who marshaled and controlled the streams of new wealth – these people were thinking of reality in quantitative terms"[1].

Despite neither construction activities nor architecture fnd specifc attentions in Crosby's work,the cultural and technical shift that characterised 14th and 15th century Europe also marked the very origin of architectural design as an independent profession. Diferent research works in architectural and art history have dealt with the naturalization of measurement in spatial representation, the expression of spatial ideas by means of sketches,which developed thanks to the availability of paper as a relatively cheap portable support, and the impact of fixing images on media for the purpose of sharing. Also relevant is the role of technical innovation, such as mechanical printing, in the way in which ideas and theories were circulated,including in relation to the very structure of editorial products. A widespread debate on the ideal principles of classic harmony, accompanied by visual messages, rapidly replaced ancient manuscripts in unique copies that rarely included pictures and had developed for that reason a narrative based on descriptive qualities and comparisons.

Indeed, the tension between qualitative and quantifiable perceptions of the world is inherent in the way in which architecture is described,communicated and discussed even today. Thinking and describing the world in terms of intrinsic qualities was what the Middle Ages transferred to us through volumes and letters compiled by wise sages and travellers. At that time, architecture embodied self-evident messages, even if reading them was, to us, like a game with no instructions.Instead, the thinking and abstracting of rules and laws out of the complex reality of built forms, or arranging thoughts as chains of causations and concatenations, are hitherto common operations in the architectural discipline. We should remember that these "natural" ways of reasoning had required a number of conditions that were manifested no earlier than 15th century Europe.They emerged from the presence of a technical community and a panel of educated recipients who were able to read and visualize drawings of the built space more easily in their minds – or even separately from – mundane architectural matters. These two notions, the presence of a professional community and the power of simplified abstraction based on visualization, are indeed relevant: from there, it follows that, in architecture, not only is it possible to abstractly discuss experiences that cannot be directly tested (one and foremost: the experience of the ancient classic ruins that are studied as a whole in drawings without being rebuilt, whether or not such hypotheses proved to be correct), but also,hypothetical occurrences that are sufficiently realistic to be simulated, calculated, criticised, etc.are worthy of consideration.

The Western standardization of the profession has been grounded on this mind-set. If nowadays image-making technologies seem to question our way of seeing the world and modify our visual environment, technological change challenges the socio-cultural framework on which the principles of seeing architecture, and its training, were established during the Renaissance[2].

Three specific threads of thoughts deserve further attention: (1) the notion of construction work as separate from the predisposition of drawings that adopt a notational system; (2) the very act of designing with a measurable idea in mind as the expression of the metaphysical perfection of reality in a clear image to be distinguished by its descriptive reproduction; (3) the circulation of a visual-based reasoning as a socio-technical innovation.

The language of symbolic vs. visual representation

"Often when two buildings are compared with one another in mediaeval writings the modern reader may wonder how the author came to see any resemblance between the two"[3]2. "The peculiar lack of precision in mediaeval descriptions not only of architectural patterns but of all geometrical forms… would seem as though a given shape were imitated not so much for its own sake as for something else it implied"[3]7-8.

Before the codification of notated design and perspective, alternative models of discourse around architecture were utilised. Today, these represent an interesting cultural frontier in their reliance on relative and relational concepts of comparison or on-site trial and error verification. Although there are very precise references to building materials as part of commercial agreements,forms and structures are not discussed as such,and in comparative descriptions – at least in the cases presented in Krautheimer's work – we found no precise geometrical correspondence among existing buildings that are grouped on the basis of similar qualities according to medieval sources of information. These mediaeval verbal depictions isolate a selection of single elements from the whole building, such as the number of columns or piers in particular positions within the building,which matter more than the complete layout, in order to define buildings as "similar" or inspired by significant references (e.g. the Holy Sepulchre in the case studied by Krautheimer). Generally speaking, drawings were marginal items in medieval architecture, and there was a lack of what we call a"precise" (i.e. measurable) correspondence between drawings and buildings.

其实，中世纪时期人工制品的美感与其对神圣性的展现直接相关，却排除了复杂的分析手段：永生的建筑——如天主教堂——必须在与众生对话的同时，也与实用主义的建造者和受过教育的神职人员对话——初见之物即为上帝的显现，就其本身而言，并不需要更进一步的校验。然而真正通过艺术作品变得可见的“对象”却远非事物的物质属性[4]，如建筑的物质属性。不如说，图纸强调了事物固有的原则和规律，正如维拉尔·德·奥内库尔4）在最早的建筑草图中所绘制的图案。草图中出现了许多几何形状，但我们并不很清楚它们的用途；而且，在许多情况下，由几何形状叠加形成的建筑形式只说明了图纸是一种表达普遍规律、说明不同要素和抽象特征之间相互关系的复杂技巧，而不具有描述性的特征。

如果比较维拉尔·德·奥内库尔和乔托（图1、2）分别绘制的两幅宗教建筑图纸和绘画，会发现拉昂大教堂含糊不清的空间体积感与斯科洛文尼教堂写实主义的重量感截然不同，这是令人震惊的差异。前者的体积感能从描绘细致、却又不具有物质性的装饰要素中辨认出来。后一幅绘画则存在着强烈的空间感，一整个三维模型被绘制在平整的墙面上，许多单一的建筑要素之间存在着内在联系，由此形成了这种空间感。尽管许多拱券窗的细节在透视图中并不可见，但我们的眼睛却已被训练得能补充完整画面。我们确实是根据设计、透视和投影关系来观看世界的，而对其客观性的信任让我们相信，这些表达方式足以让我们通过观察画面来认识真实的建筑。

图像在建筑学的思维方式中必不可少。通过具有诱惑力的幻象，我们能在二维的纸面上操纵三维的现实，而这些幻象仰赖于有节制的几何简化过程和在此之前对空间物体的精确量化过程。经由视觉化的过程，未来可被预见，过去也能复活至细致入微的程度，只要具备所有必要的轴向，使之能够变成真实的物件即可。然而，文艺复兴时期采用符号标注和透视方法制图的过程则不仅考虑如何将作者的指令传达给建造者，在许多情况下，它们更追求15世纪哲学家马尔西利奥·费奇诺5）所谓的“一种‘意识之眼的视角’，力求近似一座建筑存在于建筑师意识中的柏拉图理念”[5]335。也就是说，这意味着当时的人们并不认为设计是将“物体的质量”变为现实的操作指令[5]338；而认为它应该试图通过去除偶然事件来提炼出事物精确的核心概念。

图像的可预见性和简化

“约15世纪中期，阿尔伯蒂作为文艺复兴早期的罕世通才最早宣告建筑学首先是一种思想——它在创作者的头脑中孕育，在图纸上以符号表示，之后由手工匠人严格按照（图纸和模型传达的）指令建造，并不得进行丝毫改变。在阿尔伯蒂的设计理论中，建筑师的图纸就是最初的创作行为；可能随之而来的有形建筑只是其复制品，全无任何新增的知识价值。……这就是……为什么是图纸，而不是砖石和砂浆，成为建筑师实践的主要工具，而这一传统延续至今。”[6]128

在这一概念模型中，设计师并未建造建筑，却是建筑的创造者。他们绘制出能够表现建筑的图纸，他们的理想则是通过其他绘图工作说明设计理念并使之视觉化（设计理念在建筑师头脑中以理想几何形状的方式表达出来）。15世纪时探讨过这一问题的包括从阿尔伯蒂到马西里奥·费奇诺，他们将建筑学尊为许多哲学和科学争论的视觉化过程，哲学和科学这两者在当时密不可分。视觉化过程具有将在时间或空间上相距甚远的不同对象立刻组合在一起的优势。自然法则可用数学方程来书写；音乐形象也可跃然纸上；哲学可被编制为一卷卷著作；世界地理也可用地球仪和经过数学计算的地图来表现，用来在同一页纸上表达直线距离和角度。所有这些视觉化的过程都拥有类似的简化原则，采用了有所节制的复杂度删减法。它们也都在孜孜不倦地追求着隐藏在变化无常又易于腐败的日常经验背后的稳定性和可预测性。

由于这一工作方法建立在有能力认识和使用数学工具的基础上，建筑师必须接受教育和训练。各种理论可从留存的文献中学到，或通过研习古代经典作品获得；然而，由于各种草图本和建筑方案的收集与归类，人们有可能获得更为平易近人的信息传播方式。它们并不是维拉尔·德·奥内库尔绘制的那种草图。归功于建筑设计的方法论概念，作为阿尔伯蒂的晚辈，赛里奥提供了一套具有标准化特点的分类目录，它来源于经过挑选的古典主义纪念建筑和一些当代建筑，并且可以根据简单而不可能出错的原则进行复制和重新组合。

尽管事实上赛里奥的训练课程看似只是对庞大的知识系统化过程进行了不重要的删减，其价值却在于对设计过程和建筑学专业采用了具有可复制性的方法。可被设计对象和设计工作所承认的各种规则和规律早已俱备。建筑学变成更少随机发生事物的结果，而更多成为社会和技术教育的产物，不再被秘密的典籍和必须牢记的建筑师行业规则所控制（可以认为，维拉尔·德·奥内库尔的草图已经绘制出了这些规则中的一部分）。

1 对真实建筑的想象/Fantasising on real architectureVillard de Honnecourt, Ms. fr. 19093, Biblioteque Nationale,Paris (13th cent.). Towers of the Laon Cathedral, Sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt. In: Carpo, M. (1998). L'architettura dell'età della stampa. Oralità, scrittura, libro stampato e riproduzione meccanica dell' immagine nella storia delle teorie architettoniche. Milano: Jaca Book, p.36.

2 物质化的建筑思想/Materialising architectural ideasGiotto di Bondone (1305): Detail of the Last Judgement – Cross and donor portrait. Padova, Scrovegni Chapel.

Indeed, the beauty of artefacts in the Middle Ages was directly associated with divine manifestations, excluding sophisticated analytical tools: prominent buildings, such as cathedrals, had to speak to the crowds as well as to pragmatic builders and educated clergymen:what is visible at first sight as a manifestation of god that, as such, was not in need of further verification. Yet the "what" is made visible by works of art that is far from being the materiality of things[4], for instance, the materiality of buildings. Rather, drawings emphasise intrinsic rules and regularities, such as those drafted in the earliest architectural sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt. Geometrical shapes appear in the sketchbook, but their use is rather obscure to us, and in most cases, the superimposition of geometrical shapes to built forms simply conveys the idea that drawings are a tricky means of expressing general rules, relationships among elements and abstract features instead of possessing descriptive characteristics.

When comparing the two religious buildings drafted by Villard de Honnecourt and painted by Giotto (Fig.1, 2), the striking diference is the vague idea of the spatial solidity of the Laon Cathedral,which is recognisable precisely by its detailed yet immaterial decorative elements as opposed to the realistic gravity of the Scrovegni Chapel. In the latter, spatiality is self-assertive and results from the interconnection among single architectural elements in a whole tridimensional model painted on a fat wall. Although some details of the arched windows are not visible in the perspective, our eye is trained to complete the picture. We do see the world according to design, perspective and projections,and our trust in their objectivity makes us confdent that these representations suffice to recognize the real building by sight from its picture.

Images are substantial in the way in which we practice architectural thinking. The seductive fiction through which tri-dimensional reality can be manipulated on bi-dimensional sheets relies on controlled geometrical simplifications and,before that, the precise quantification of spatial matters. Through visualization, the future can be anticipated and the past revived in detail, with all the necessary directions to make it into a real object.Yet, the Renaissance codification of notational and perspective drawings concerned not only the transposition of instructions from authors to builders, but also pursued in many cases what the 15th century philosopher Marsilio Ficino called "a"mind's-eye view", in seeking to approximate the original Platonic Idea of a building as it existed in the architect's mind"[5]335. This means, in other words, that designing was not intended as the operational indication to make real "the mass of the matter"[5]338; rather, it was an attempt at subtracting contingent matter to extract essential ideas.

The image of predictability and simplifcation

"Around the mid-15th century, Leon Battista Alberti, the universal man of the early Renaissance,was the first to claim that architecture is first and foremost an idea: conceived in the mind of its author, notated in drawings, then built by manual workers who must comply with the instructions they receive (through drawings and models), and follow them without change. In Alberti's theory of design, the architect's drawing is the original act of creation; the physical building that may follow is only a copy, devoid of any intellectual added value…This is how… drawings, rather than bricks and mortar, became, and remain to this day, the main tool of the architect's trade"[6]128.

In this conceptualization, designers are the authors of buildings that they do not build. They make drawings that represent buildings, and their ambition is to convey and visualize ideas (i.e. the one in the architect's mind that is expressed by ideal geometries) through their drawing work.Considering the personalities who elaborated on the matter in the 15th century, from Leon Battista Alberti to Marsilio Ficino, the architectural discipline is dignifed as the visualization of philosophical and scientific debates that were strictly connected at the time. Visualization had the merit of combining,at frst sight, objects that were far from each other in time or space. The law of nature can be written in terms of mathematical formula; music can be visualized on a page; philosophy can be organised into volumes; the world geography can be illustrated in globes and mathematically calculated maps,useful for transferring, on the same sheet, linear distances and angles. All these visualizations share similar principles of simplification by means of a controlled reduction of complexity. They also share the continuous search for stability and predictability hidden in the impermanent and corruptible routinary experience.

3 编篡建筑要素/Codifying architectural elementsSebastiano Serlio (about 1540). Details of the Coliseum; from the Third Book "On antiquities". In: Carpo, M. (1998). Ibid. p.55.

Since this work method is based on the capacity to recognise and use mathematical tools,architects had to be educated and trained. Theories could be learned in the existing treatises or by studying the ancient classics; however, a more approachable transmission was available, thanks to the collections and catalogues of sketchbooks and building solutions. These were not sketchbooks such as the one by Villard de Honnecourt. Thanks to the notion of a methodological approach to architectural design, a generation after Leon Battista Alberti, Sebastiano Serlio provided a catalogue of standardised features that were extracted from selected classic monuments and a few contemporary buildings and could be replicated and recombined according to simple and unmistakable rules.

Despite the fact that Serlio's training programme seems to be a minor reduction of a great systematization of knowledge, its value is the method of duplicability applied to the design process and the profession. Rules and regularities were ready to be acknowledged in the designed object as well as in the designing work. Architectural work was less the result of casual occurrences and more the product of socio-technical education, no longer controlled by the secretive codes and sets of norms that guilds of construction chiefs had to memorize(arguably, such rules are, in part, illustrated in Villard de Honnecourt's sketches).

建筑学教育所取得的这一里程碑直接导致的结果是，以一幅已经确定且描绘细致的图像作为参考存在着一定风险，可能产生与某个模型相符的、造型正确却相当粗糙的建筑。赛里奥的课程暗含遵守规则和强制方式的不同程度之间存在冲突——其本意并不是要教育出一班有创造力的设计师，而更倾向于教育出经过恰当训练的专业人员，他们拥有同一种思维方式和同一种实践表现。

以视觉化为基础进行推理的力量

“既然艺术家应该‘再造’自然事物‘原本的样子’，他就必须首先了解其本然；其次还需知晓如何对其进行再造。文艺复兴时期的艺术理论在当时面对两大主要问题，一是物质性的，另一则是形式的或具象的[7]244。”

以视觉化为基础进行的推理建立在定量思维的基础上，产生了通过统一的度量对世界进行有节制的简化的方式。通过墨守成规可以取得精确的结果，甚至假设的基础谬误之时也同样如此。透视图已开始成为回应文艺复兴时期一般哲学原则的理想方式，以特点显著的单点透视开始，可与被放置在 “宇宙中心”的人相匹配——正如另一位人文主义哲学家皮科·德拉·米兰多拉在其名著6）中所述。与平面投影图相比较，透视图具有明显的优势——它所呈现的内容提供了令人信服的错觉；然而，从技术角度看，透视图的几何学并不是人类视力的复制品。透视图只有一个视点，而我们的视力却源自双眼的同时观看，研究各种角度就能产生视错觉等。文艺复兴时期的写实主义因此只是虚构的渴望，希望能用一只眼睛观察世界——即经过筛选的、如神一般的精确几何综合体——因此不该希冀它会遵循物质的属性。大部分15世纪的理论文献所收录的建筑平面与剖面图，以及后来出现在帕拉第奥著作中的图纸，实际上更好地满足了在同一页纸上对一整套备选方案进行同时同等分析的需要。

透视图和投影图都满足了对部分与整体相和谐的追求，并且基于这个原因，它们所取得的精确性和可预测性不仅是几何学的正确，也具有构图价值。这些透视结构不仅用于描述已建成的现存景观，也是对新建环境进行想象的工具，它们与任何叙事性的意图毫无关联，后者只在某些情况下具有相关的影响，如理想城市的插图（图4）。相反，一幅精心构成的透视图油画，如皮耶罗·德拉·弗朗西斯卡在《基督受鞭图》中描绘的虚构建筑，可以通过平面投影的方式进行再研究，来确定比例的协调和许多扭曲的建筑要素之间的相互关系。

然而，另一个值得我们关注的方面是，在文艺复兴时期，图纸变成了建立在简化模式基础上的原调查分析手段。建筑设计者把他们的工艺转化为视觉形象，从而掌握了操纵视觉效果的特殊能力，让其他人观看这一视觉效果并最终用以形成一个观念或作出一个决定。也就是说，设计者在准备其作品的表现框架时，有主观行动、并插手干预了他们的设计任务。□

译注

1）艾尔弗雷德·克罗斯比（1931-），美国历史学家，美国奥斯汀德州大学历史、地理和美国研究专业的荣誉退休教授。

2）理查德·克劳泰默尔（Richard Krautheimer，1897-1994），图像学艺术史学家，曾师从沃尔夫林；将图像学的方法运用于建筑研究，是基督教与拜占庭建筑权威。先后在汉堡大学、纽约大学等美国多所大学任教，对美国艺术史学的形成具有重要影响。

3）圣墓大教堂位于以色列东耶路撒冷旧城，又称“复活教堂”，许多基督徒认为教堂的基址即是《新约圣经》中描述的耶稣基督死去、安葬和复活的地方；教堂从公元4世纪开始成为重要的朝圣目的地。4）维拉尔·德·奥内库尔是13实际法国北部的艺术家，仅仅通过留存于世的一本作品集或“草图本”为人们所知，其中绘制了大约250幅各种不同主题的图纸和设计。

5）马尔西利奥. 费奇诺（1433—1499），意大利学者和天主教教士，是意大利文艺复兴早期最有影响力的人文主义哲学家之一。佛罗伦萨柏拉图学院派最著名的代表人物，该学派影响了意大利文艺复兴的方向和进程及欧洲哲学的发展。

6）皮科·德拉·米兰多拉（1463－1494）是意大利文艺复兴时期的著名思想家，其著作《论人的尊严》是他在23岁（1486年）写就的一篇长篇讲演稿，在其中肯定了人在宇宙的中心地位以及现世人生的美好和意义，被称为“人文主义宣言”。

4 可以信赖的抽象事物/Abstractions made reliableFra Carnevale (about 1480-1484). The Ideal City. Courtesy ofThe Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

5 虚构的建筑可以作为真实的对象进行研究/Fictionalarchitecture can be studied as a real object Wittkower, R. and Carter, B.A.R. (1953). Reconstruction of Plan and Elevation of Piero della Francesca's Flagellation of Christ.Journal of Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 16 (3-4), plate 44.

The immediate result of this milestone in architectural education was that having as a reference a fixed and detailed image was at risk of generating correct yet rather rigid buildings that conform to a given model. A tension between degrees of conformation and coercion was implicit in Serlio's programme: his intent was not to educate a creative class of designers, but more properlytrained professionals who shared a methodology of thinking and an operative performativity.

The power of visual-based reasoning

"Since the artist was supposed to 'reproduce'the things in nature 'as they are' he had to be informed, frst, as to how they are; and, second, as to how they can be reproduced. The art theory of the Renaissance, then, was faced with two main problems, one material and the other formal or representational."[7]244.

Visual-based reasoning, which is built on quantitative thinking, resulted in the implementation of a controlled simplification of the world by means of uniform quanta. By employing conventions, it proved to be precise in its results, even when based on wrong assumptions.Perspective has been the ideal response to the general principles of Renaissance philosophy,starting with the prominence of a single point of vision comparable to the man placed "in the centre of the universe" as another humanist philosopher,Pico della Mirandola, stated in a famous motto.Perspective had the advantage of obviousness when compared to projections: what is represented provides an illusion of trustfulness; however,from a technical point of view, the geometry of perspective is not the replica of human vision.The perspectival point of vision is one, while our sight is made of two eyes working simultaneously,and the study of angles can result in visual distortions, etc. The realism of the Renaissance is thus a fictional aspiration to get a one-eye sight of the world, a filtered god-like synthesis of accurate geometry that should not be thought of as adherent to materiality. Plans and sections of buildings included in most of the theoretical treatises of the 15th century, and later in those of Palladio, better responded to the need to illustrate on one page a whole range of alternatives to be equally and simultaneously analysed.

Perspective as well as projections pleased the search for the harmony of the parts in relation to the whole, and for this reason, their exact and predictable results were not only geometrically correct but also compositionally valuable.Perspective constructions were not only a way of describing existing built landscapes, but also a tool for imagining new ones, disconnected from any particular narrative intent, which in some cases had a relevant influence, such as the illustrations of ideal cities (Fig. 4). Conversely, a carefully built perspectival painting, such as fctional architecture in The Flagellation by Piero della Francesca, could be re-studied in the form of plan projection to confrm proportional harmony and mutual relations among distorted architectural elements.

Yet another consideration deserves our attention inasmuch as drawings became, during the Renaissance, the analytical means of metainvestigations of the mechanisms of simplification on which they were based. Visualizing their crafts,architectural designers operate the special power of manipulating the visual effect that others will see and eventually use to form an opinion or make a decision. In other words, designers do things and step into the scene of their design task when they are preparing the framework for their work to be.□

[1] Crosby, A.W. (1997). The Measure of Reality.Quantification and Western Society, 1250-1600.Cambridge University Press.

[2] Carpo, M. & Lemerle, F. (eds) (2008). Perspective,Projections and Design. Technologies of Architectural Representation. Abingdon: Routledge.

[3] Krautheimer, R. 1942. Iconography of Mediaeval Architecture, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 5: 1–33.

[4] Eco, U. 1987. Art and Beauty in the Middle Ages.New Haven-London: Yale University Press.

[5] Blair Moore, K. 2009. Ficino's Idea of architecture:the "mind's-eye view" in Quattrocento architectural drawings, Renaissance Studies 24(3): 332–352.

[6] Carpo, M. 2013. The Art of Drawing, Architectural Design 83(5): 128 – 133.

[7] Panofski, E. 1955. The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

[8] Choay, F. and Bratton, D. (1997). The Rule and the Model: On the Theory of Architecture and Urbanism.Cambridge: MIT Press.

[9] Wittkover R. and Carter, B.A.R. (1953). The perspective of Piero della Francesca's Flagellation of Christ. Journal of Warburg and Courtauld Institutes,16 (3-4): 292–302.

Architecture and the Naturalization of Measurement, Exactness and Predictability

文化与技术的革新是14世纪和15世纪欧洲的重要特征，其转变与建筑设计作为独立专业的肇始有深刻的渊源。建筑史和艺术史的许多研究已对其中一些方面进行了探讨，包括在空间表达时采用尺寸标注，因纸张可相对便宜地购得让人们能通过草图表达空间概念，以及机械印刷的手段如何影响配有插图、描述思想和理论稿件的编辑和传播方式。本文在诸多认知世界的定性概念和定量概念之间存在矛盾的领域中，探讨了透视画和通过符号表达的设计如何不仅象征着人们在描述、沟通和探讨建筑学方式上的激进转变，也成为此后几个世纪诸多专业争论的基础。

The cultural and technical shift that characterised 14th and 15th century Europe is deeply intertwined with the origin of architectural design as an independent profession.Research works in architectural and art history have dealt with the naturalization of measurement in the representation of space, the expression of spatial ideas through sketches,which was made possible by the availability of relatively cheap paper, and the infuence of mechanical printing on the way in which ideas and theories were edited and circulated along with illustrations. The essay explores how the codification of perspective drawings and notated design, among the many fields in which the tension between qualitative and quantifiable perceptions of the world unfolds, represented not only a radical shift in the way architecture was described,communicated and debated, but also the ground for professional debates in centuries to come.

空间测量，建筑表现，符号表达设计，透视画

spatial measurement, architectural representation,notated design, perspective drawing

6 新建筑师的初次亮相/The new architect's debutGiovanni da Sangiovanni (about 1635), Detail of the Celebration of Lorenzo il Magnifco: Giuliano da Sangallo holding in his hands the project of the Villa in Poggio a Caiano.Florence, Pitti Palace. In: Jestaz, B. (1995). Il Rinascimento dell' architettura da Brunelleschi a Palladio. Milan: Electa/Gallimard, p.98.

都灵理工大学

2017-08-21