Zhao Tingjian

Abstract：Frazers research on the Old Testament of the Bible has not been paid enough attention in anthropology.In Folk-lore in the Old Testament，Frazer demonstrated the evolutionary history of Hebraic social patterns.Combining this book with The Golden Bough，another classic by Frazer，this paper aims to reveal Frazers view of society.In his research，divine kingship represented by ancient Rome is one，but not the only form of ancient society.This is because the Hebraic society manifests a form that differs from that of ancient Rome.Through the comparison of social structure， we can find Frazers imagined ideal society.

In the book The Golden Bough，by seeking to explain the remarkable rules which regulated the succession to the priesthood of Diana，James Frazer gave examples of the magical traditions existing all over the world.Magic is both a mode of thought and a system of practice.Frazers discovery that the kingship in ancient Rome was closely related to magic laid the foundation for researching divine kingship in anthropology.However，we have to note that divine kingship is not the only pattern of ancient society.In his study of the Old Testament，Frazer found that kingship was not able to integrate the whole of society.This review aims to clarify Frazers definition of Hebraic society，and reveal his conception of society behind it.Folk-lore in the Old Testament contains four parts.The first part titled “The Early Ages of the World”is an analysis of creation myths，and will not be discussed here.The second part，“The Patriarchal Age”，is the beginning of his study on Hebraic history，and from it we can see the process of the evolution of society.

I.Magic and Society of the Hebrew People

The Patriarchal Period headed by Abraham was the beginning of Hebraic history.During that period，the Hebrews lived a nomadic life.Their society was organized into patriarchal clans.The Patriarch held both power and property，and was succeeded by his youngest son.

The history of the Hebrews recorded in the Old Testament describes that Hebrews gradually adopted monotheism as their key element.In Canaan，Abraham and God made an oath of alliance，in which Abraham was asked to believe in God，and God promised land and property for Abraham and his descendants.This oath inserted the relationship between God and man into Hebraic society.However，monotheism did not totally replace magic.In the Old Testament，there are many rituals performed by the Patriarch that were regarded as magic，although，many religious scholars might take these as moral admonitions.

After Moses led the Hebrews to Canaan，they became agriculturalists.At this time，the Hebrews grew into a nation，and were governed by judges.Judges are Gods agents in mans world and were responsible for judicial adjudication.We can also still find remnants of the concept of magic in these judges，especially with regard to Samson.Samson had supernatural powers which were stored in his hair.This idea is related to the Hebrew concept of spirit，which could be extracted from body and stored in a container.In the magical mind，spirit is concrete rather than abstract，and could be cut off from life due to destruction from the outside.

Magic also existed in the folk religion related to the worship of oak trees and mountain temples.Peasants regarded the oak as the dwelling of the gods，so，they made sacrifices to their ancestors and prophets beneath the trees.They also believed that the ceremonies conducted under oak trees were effective in healing illnesses.Temples where the gods resided were always built high up among the forests of oak.People sacrificed their harvest to the gods here to pray for prosperity.It is clear that there were once many local magicians or priests here who held rituals to satisfy the needs of peasant society.

From the Patriarchal Age to the Time of Judges，magic played an important role in Hebraic society.We can see from The Golden Bough that Frazer made positive comments about magic.Although the exploration of the relationship of causation to magic might not correct，it was mans way of thinking about nature，and his efforts to control nature.Hence，this was an early stage of civilization for humans.When the Hebrews entered the period of the kings，we can still find a close relationship between the Hebraic kingship and magic.For example，Saul and his sons were buried under oak trees，and he （Saul） once stood on a sacred mountain holding the spear of the king.However，Hebraic society did not turn into the kind of divine kingship as found in ancient Rome because Hebraic kingship was limited by monotheism.

II.Hebraic kingship and religious reform

Hebrew kingship had special background.After the Hebrews settled in Canaan，for a period，they were governed by judges in the name of God.Then，the people demanded a king，who was elected from common people，because of dissatisfaction with the judges.So，Samuel nominated Saul as the first king.

Although Saul was a gifted leader，he was，as Frazer noted，always in a melancholy mood.As a secular governor，Saul was just a puppet controlled by Samuel.When Samuel died，Saul felt worse because he thought he had been discarded by God.He did not know how to deal with the invasion of Philistines except to ask Samuels spirit for help.Saul found the witch of Endor who called upon the spirit of Samuel to guide the king.Unfortunately，the prophet did nothing but foretell of Sauls failure，which struck such a heavy blow that the king threw himself on the floor.

In the chapter the“Witch of Endor”，Frazer showed the tension in the relationship between king，prophet and witch.The king，elected by the prophet，was always in the danger of being discarded by God，and the witch fell under the kings attack due to her pagan nature.The paradox is that magic became the only hope for King Saul when he faced his crisis.This tension in the Age of Kings emerged during the religious reform launched by Josiah.The reform took im at the worship of oak trees and sacred temples because they were regarded as the worship of idols and were polytheistic.With the abolishment of the sacred places and temples，the ritual worship of Jehovah （God） was concentrated in Jerusalem.The influence of the religious reform was that the locals need for prosperity could not be satisfied，and that Hebrew kingship relied more on the covenant with Jehovah as it lost its social base.

III.Hebrew law reform

Hebraic law derived from the covenant between God and man，but it was not invariable.Studies have established that the Jewish Pentateuch formed，in addition to in the desert and Moab by Moses，in later times when the Jews were expelled after Nebuchadnezzar occupied Jerusalem in BC 586.The laws were totally new，however.According to textual exegesis ，there were three different kinds of law in the Pentateuch： the Code of the Covenant，Deuteronomic Code，and the priests law.

The Book of Covenant，the oldest law，might derive from customary Hebraic law.It reflected the social conditions in the Age of Kings and Judges.The laws originated from the oracles that local priests received in the sacred places and the advice of prophets.So it could be said that the law was held by the priests with their intelligence.

The Deuteronomic Code，founded in the Temple of Jerusalem in BC 621，was the second law.It was the first set of statutes and laws promulgated by the government.This law reform was important in two senses.On the one hand，it led to the religious reform in which Josiah abolished local worship and accordingly，the priests lost their social function.On the other hand，the Book of Deuteronomy heralds the beginning of the canonization of the Bible.The free thought and advice contained in the oracles were now constrained by words，and since this time，writers took place of prophets and priests.The emphasis on religious ethics and morals found in the Book of Deuteronomy led to the Hebrews giving up the exploration and use of the nature.Unfortunately，soon after this reform，this kingdom collapsed during the invasion by Babylonia

The third law，named the Priestly Code，was formulated by the prophet Issac in BC 444 after the Babylonian Exile.This law stressed the importance of ceremony.As the Jews reflected upon the Babylonian Exile，they felt that they owed their failure to their nonadherence to the strict performance of religious rituals and ceremonies.So，the Priestly Code，unlike the Deuteronomic Code， put ceremony over ethics and morals.Frazer took this law reform as Hebrews transformation from nation to believers.This was an essential change of society.

In general，the law reform tended to eliminate any magic embedded within it，and stressed instead ethics and ceremony.Frazer took the Decalogue as example to confirm this trend.In the oldest Book of the Covenant，there was a command “not to see the kid in its mothers milk”.This could not be explained in any religious way.In fact，it came from magical principles that said violation of this command would kill the goat or make it stop giving milk.The later Decalogue was all about moral request.This was an example to show the changing trends of law.

IV.Conclusion： Frazers view of society

It may seem that Folk-lore in the Old Testament is merely a review of remnants of barbaric folklore in the Old Testament.In fact，this research contains Frazers concern on the totality of society.The barbaric remnants were actually a demonstration of the contest between magic and religion in Hebrew society.The form of society was decided by which of the two took the lead.

In early times，the Hebrews social organization was the patriarchal clan based on blood.The Patriarch was the holder of power and property，and he played the main role in integrating society.Also，the belief in Jehovah had not yet become dominant because magic still played a major role in their lives.After the Hebrews relocated to Canaan，and they experienced a large growth of population，the Hebrews became a nation rather than a clan society.Monotheism dominated their society along with the reform of religion and law.Under the belief of God，popular magic and magicians were expelled，and the secular kings spirit was offered to God.The priests，rather than the kings，held the religious power needed to integrate society.

A comparison can be made between Hebrew and Roman society.In The Golden Bough，Frazer discussed the importance of magic in ancient Rome.There was a king in the woods and a king in the city.The Forest King was Dianas priest and her lovers avatar.He obtained the magical power of prosperity through this marriage.Numa，king of ancient Rome，did the same with his marriage to the oak goddess Egeria.The power of prosperity then flew in to Rome.It can be said that magical kingship was the origin of the life of ancient Rome.

With the comparison above，we can see that the totality of ancient Roman society was represented by divine kingship just as the totality of Hebrew society was represented by the patriarch in early times and the priest in later.Romans and the Hebrews represent two different kinds of ancient social structures.This is a illustration of Frazers view of society.Kingship is one kind of social form，but not the only.

However，this does not mean that Frazer did not have a preference between these two social forms.His yearning for ancient Rome and his worry regarding social rigidity can be sensed in his words.When he talked about the evolution of society，he said that society is something that grows，and is not a structure.This means not only is evolution continuous，but，also refers to the idea that society is alive.So，society depends on magic，which is the foundation for human to live in nature，to provide vitality.Divine kingship which is the source of all magic is then highly praised by him.But in the development of Hebrew society，monotheism abolished all popular magic，which resulted in the loss of vitality.Under the rule of priests，the Hebrews gave up their efforts to take advantage of nature.Instead they only sought for supernatural powers.In Frazers view，the strict moral commands and religious ritualism led the Hebrews to rigidity.It was destined that the kingdom would fall when it was faced with the Babylonian invasion.

Key Words： magic；religion divine kingship； social integrality

References：

James J.Frazer.jinzhi（The Golden Bough）.Xu Yuxin，Wang Peiji transl.Beijing：xinshijie chubanshe，2015.

James J.Frazer.“jiuyue” zhong de minjie chuanshuo（Folk-lore in the Old Testament） .Ye Shuliang，Lu Xiaohui transl.Xian：shanxi shiban daxhu chubanshe，2012.

Thinking from An Annotated Collection of the Yi Bimo Manuscripts

Luo Qu

（School of Yi Studies，Southwest University for Nationalities，Chengdu，610041，Sichuan ，China）

JOURNAL OF ETHNOLOGY，VOL.7，NO.1，65-70，2015 （CN51-1731/C，in Chinese）

DOI：10.3969/j.issn.1674-9391.2015.01.10

Abstract：

Since the 19th century，scholars both home and abroad have paid a lot of attention to Yi culture，and many works have been published.After the founding of the Peoples Republic of China，and especially since the implementation of the policy of “reform and opening up”，real achievements have been made on collecting，translating，sorting，and publishing Yi literature.The publication of the 106 volumes of An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts has especially had a great social impact.However，Bimo literature is just one part of Yi literature.Whether accounting for the kinds or the quantity，we have a large body of translated works，works written in Chinese or other languages by the Yi literati，and Yi language literature.Therefore，we should set up a concept of “Yi Literature”，and make a scientific classification.Classification is a way of understanding things，from the specific to the general.So，in this regard，research on the classification of Yi literature is related to the realization of the value of Yi literature.This paper starts from An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts，and conducts a preliminary investigation on the classification of Yi literature in order to stimulate more valuable contributions to this field. An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts is，up to today，one of the greatest works of Yi cultural heritage that has been collated，translated and published.It contains some of the most splendid content，is very extensive，and is a precious literature resource.It，thus，has great research value.Based on administrative divisions，93 manuscripts collected in An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts are from Yunnan； five are from Sichuan，7 from Guizhou，and 1 from Guangxi.In looking at t the way the texts have been passed down and recorded，84 manuscripts are written in Yi and 22 are oral texts which were collected and sorted.Seen from the perspective of content，43 manuscripts are related to rituals ，27 are about literature，13 are related to the astronomical calendar，7 are about history，6 are about medicine，5 are related to education，2 are related to language，2 are about military matters，and 1 is a book about accounting.

The characteristics of the region，as well as of the collectors and providers of the textual resources for An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts reflect an important historical cultural phenomenon of the Yi Bimo literature.Seen from the perspective of the orgins of the text，although the use of Yi scripts is early，and almost all Yi districts have Bimo literature，the Yi Bimo literature is generally concentrated more in places where the local authority of the Yi existed in the past.However，if we look at the 106 volumes of An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts from the perspective of literature classification，we get a strong sense that it is necessary to make a classification which is based upon modern literary classification.As mentioned above，the 106 volumes of An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts are classified into 9 categories，including ritual texts，literature，astronomy calendar，history，medicine，education，language，military and accounting.These are the categories which are classified based on the 106 volumes of An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts.Although it is certain that Bimo literature includes these 9 kinds of content，this fact does not deny that we might find a text that contains content other than the 9 categories.The general preface of An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts divides the Bimo literature into 15 categories，including primitive religion，history，genealogical documents，philosophy，ethics，astronomical calendars，geography，literature，art，medicine，agriculture，military，translation，clerical and proclamation，and writing systems，etc.Therefore，from the general preface，we know that while implementing the great cultural project of An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts，a classification was already included.However，the publication which sits in the hands of readers is not divided into 15 categories as mentioned in the general preface.Instead，each volume from the 106 volumes often includes several texts （volumes）.Moreover，cross-disciplinary issues exist in some of the texts （volume） in a single volume.From the above discussion，we know that it is necessary to conduct research on the scientific classification of Bimo literature.This is because a considerable amount of Bimo literature has already been collected，translated，and published.

Making a literature classification of Bimo literature has an important significance for the study of Bimo literature.Classifying the literature will not only classify，but will also organize and reveal systematically the attributes of the contents of the literature according to the subject content and other notable features reflected in the literature by taking the theory of literature classification as the tool.The purpose，on one hand，is to organize the literature according to system of disciplinary knowledge，and，on the other hand，it is to reveal the characteristic of the content of the literature according to the disciplinary knowledge system.Concerning the classification problem in An Annotated Collection of Yi Bimo Manuscripts，this article states that the ancient manuscripts written in the Yi language are mostly Bimo literature，and the content of the Bimo literature is the richest part of the Yis ancient documents.Thus，a scientific classification of them has a very practical meaning.

In fact，not only should the research on the classification of Bimo literature be strengthened，but it should also be extended into the field of Yi studies： 1） to the study of the classification of Yi language literature； and 2） to the study of the literature of the Yi.By taking the classification system of modern literature as a reference，this paper divides Yi literature into several “basic categories” according to its reality.

1.Literature in the Yi language

As a basic category on the first level，it includes two secondary categories： 1） ancient Yi language literature； and 2） modern and contemporary Yi language literature.Taking into consideration of the Yi language literature left by Yi intellectuals in the history of the Yi，the ancient Yi language literature is divided into two third-level categories，including Bimo literature and vernacular Yi language literature.Then，the Bimo Yi literature and the vernacular Yi language literature are further classified into various categories according to modern disciplines.

2.Literature written in other languages by Yi intellectuals

The reason why we do not say Chinese，but say other languages，is because some literary works are written in English or other foreign languages by Yi intellectuals.As a basic category on the first level，it includes two secondary categories： 1） ancient literature； 2） modern and contemporary literature.Then，the literature written in other languages by the Yi intellectuals are classified into various categories according to modern disciplines.

3.Translated Works

For the convenience of checking and research，this basic category on the first level includes two secondary categories： 1） translated ancient literature； and 2） translated modern and contemporary literature.The translated literature on the secondary level is classified into various categories according to modern disciplines.For instance，modern translated works can be divided into politics，science and technology，or literature，and so forth.Then，within these categories，literature can be divided into literature written by authors and folk literature.Lastly，the literature written by authors can be divided into poetry，prose，fiction，and so on.

With such a classification system，we can compile the main table of contentes，profiling，mark symbol，subdivision tables，descriptions，and category annotations，indexes so as to facilitate greatly the end use of Yi literature.We can especially try to classify the information networks of Yi literature based upon this framework.

The classification of information networks meets the needs of various types of information organizations.It is scientific and practical，and is a dynamic classification system which can meet the needs of various users.It can fully reveal the relevant relationship between information and knowledge，and can effectively control and filter searched information.When faced by the users，it can interact with subject retrieval，and has a function for the output of rich information.Meanwhile，a literature online retrieval system and CD-ROM retrieval system has appeared.Therefore，it is necessary to conduct a scientific classification by setting up the concept of Yi literature from a macro perspective and the top level.

Key Words： the Yi； Bimo scriptures； the Yi literature； classification

References：

Yi Language Literature Translation Office of Central Minzu University.yiwen wenxianxue gailun（General Introduction to Yi Classical Philology）.Beijing：zhongyan minzu daxue chubanshe，1996.

Yu Junli，Chen Shunian.wenxian fenleixue（Literature Taxonomy）.Wuhan：wuhan daxue chubanshe，2009.

Zhu Congxian.yiwen guji zhengli yu yanjiu（Sorting out and Researching Ancient Yi Manuscripts）.Beijing：minzu chubanshe，2008.

Zhu Congxian.zhongguo shaoshu minzu gudian wenxianxue（A Classical Literature Study of Chinas Ethnic Minorities）.Beijing：minzu chubanshe，2005.