Zhang Qiaoyun

Abstract：Anthropological research has long been concerned with problems of identity.Among the many identity problems，national identity，along with the rise of nationalism，is one of the most complex issues with far-reaching impacts on the worlds cultures and politics.In contemporary times，nationalism has unfortunately brought about succeeding conflicts and violence worldwide.Anthropological studies have long been devoted to properly understanding the overwhelming power and undesiring limits of nationalism，and solving the dilemma and predicaments caused by this concept.A classic study of nationalism，Imagined Communities by Benedict Anderson，innovatively explores the historical conditions and different processes of the rise of nationalism across societies.Anderson，born in Kunming，China，in 1936，was a world-famous political scientist and Southeast Asian specialist with a research focus on nationalism and international relations.By thought-provokingly examining the cultural and emotional elements contained in the concept of nationalism，Anderson proposed that the nation，as an imagined community，rises from a particular historical context and retains strong political power.A master of interdisciplinary and cross-culture studies，Anderson in this book rightfully explores the cultural history of nationalism，comprehensively studies its cultural meanings and political influences，and correctly critiques the fever brought about by the spread of this ideology.Imagined Communities completely refreshed our approach to nationalism.At the same time，Anderson had been especially sympathetic to the identity crisis and conflicts brought about by nationalism.He was deeply involved in the anti-imperialism and anti-colonialism movements.Anderson wrote this book in response to the conflicts among nation-states in the Indo-China Peninsula during the late 1970s.Sadly，nationalism is still causing major conflicts and wars at the time when he passed away in 2015.Andersons sudden death is a big loss to the scholarly community.In this book，Anderson had already illuminated the many problems and limits of nationalism.One of the best ways to show humble condolences，in my viewpoint，is to continue exploring solutions to the many challenges caused by the nationalist ideology.I argue that a comparative analysis of pre-nation-state societies and ethnographies of Chinas southwestern multi-ethnic region can provide meaningful food for thought.

1.Boundaries and Exclusiveness： Imagining the Nation-State

At the beginning of the book，Anderson clearly points out that “nationality，nation-ness，as well as nationalism，are cultural artefacts of a particular kind”.Anderson defines nation as “an imagined political community - and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign”.The nation is firstly imagined in the sense that members of one nation have never met，and most likely will never meet in their lifetime.The nation is at the same time imagined as limited and sovereign.Finally，the nation is imagined as a community constructed upon “a deep，horizontal comradeship”.Different from Gellners approach （1983），Anderson proposes that nation and nationalism emerge with particular cultural systems and political relationships.In this book，Anderson first discusses the three cultural roots that preceded nationalism，and out of which，as well as against which，the latter came into being.The first one is the religious community whose power and legitimacy are established upon the worship of sacred language and centripetal and hierarchical social grouping.The explorations of the non-European world and gradual demolition of the sacred language itself，on the one hand，gave faiths territorial differences，and on the other hand，fragmentized and territorialized the religious communities previously united by the sacred language.The second pre-nation-state society discussed is the dynastic realms，which are defined by centers，and borders which are indistinct and porous.Populations of the realms were “immensely heterogeneous and often not even contiguous”.And，finally，the influence of the realms was strengthened through wars and sexual politics.The changing apprehension of the “homogeneous，empty” time critically transformed the way in which people connect with each other to form a nation.

However，“the convergence of capitalism and print technology on the fatal diversity of human language” has transformed the way in which society is imagined，and prompted the nationalist consciousness.Anderson argues that the print-languages，made popular along with globalizing capitalist development，are the foundation for nationalist consciousness.The fixed quality of the print-languages creates an image of antiquity for the idea of a nation.Different from the sacred languages，print-languages are mastered by most common people，becoming a powerful medium of uniting them.Then，Anderson delineates the four waves of nationalist movements across the globe.The nationalist movement of the new American states in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was promoted mainly by Creole functionaries.Being barred in their pilgrimages to the colonial centers，they formed nations of their own in the colonies with their traveling companions.European nationalism in the nineteenth century can be understood as a piracy of the American model，but print-languages played a central role in uniting those who，through learning，teaching and using the same language，formed an imaged community.Official nationalism of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries is a special case which combines nationalism （through the choice of the language of the state） with the retention of dynamic power.Finally，there is the nationalist wave in the newly-independent Asian and African countries after World War II.It is one which is strongly manipulated by the bilingual intelligentsias who，like the Creole functionaries，helped to form a nationalist consciousness through modern-style education and history writing.Chapter Eight of Andersons book distinguishes patriotism promoted by nationalist thinking and racism influenced by the ideology of class.Chapter Nine discusses briefly the characteristics of nationalism in socialist countries.Chapter Ten demonstrates how the census，maps，and museums help fix nationalist boundaries and discourse.The last chapter discusses the selective construction of the nationalist history，which has facilitated the imagining of an antique and always united national community.

2.Centers and Inclusiveness： Lessons from the Kingship Societies

In Imagined Communities，Anderson pointed out three characteristics of nationalism.It is firstly a product of imagining for an eternal，shared community，and of particular historical conditions.Secondly，nationalism is，thus，often imagined as being limited while having clear boundaries.Finally，nationalist intelligentsias have played a central role in constructing and promoting nationalist consciousness.Influenced by this book，much research on nationalism has focused on the demarcation and construction of nationalist boundaries.Nation-states are gradually changed from imagined communities to fixed entities.This，at the same time，brought about a great number of conflicts and wars.However，are the nation-states only shaped by their boundaries？ How is one to solve the conflicts brought by the exclusiveness brought about by the closed nation-state？ And，how is one to make peace among the worlds different nation-states，and among different nationalities within one state？ I suggest that a study of the pre-nation-state societies，such as the kingship societies，may give us some inspiration.

Firstly，similar to the kingship societies，nation-states are also shaped by the imagining of an “exemplary center”.Kingship societies，or in Andersons terminology，dynamic realms，are constructed around a center.The creation，worship，and sanctification of the center are the vital means in which the state is united.Geertzs （1980） excellent book on Bali as a theater state，and the ideology of the “exemplary center”，and Burkes （1992） classic study of the Fabrication of Louis XIV，have both illustrated the importance of the center to the making and empowering of the kingship.Burke in his book also argues that modern states often adopt similar techniques by upholding national heroes，chairpersons，and presidents in order to foster a sense of unitedness.Those heroes and leaders，at the same time，become exemplary symbols of the state.As Bai and Tang （2015） conclude，Burkes book alerts us that nation-states may not only be constructed by its boundaries，but also shaped by worshiping the exemplary，the heroes，and the “Great”.

On the other hand，communities with fixed ideas of the boundaries，such as the nation-states，are，in fact，very unrealistic and extremely dangerous.Kingship societies，on the other hand，have always been open to outside influences and interactions.In Frazers （ 1890） discussion of the crucial role of the golden bough for sustaining the fertility and vitality of the king of the wood，and Sahlins （2008） argument of strangers as kings，one can discern that kingship societies are the ones always open for the challenges of the other，through which the kingship gains influence and power.Nation-states，in the same vein，are constantly negotiating their relationships with “one and other”，whose boundaries are always open for construction.

3.Beyond Nationalism and Nation-States： Some Meaningful Exploration

In fact，the meaning and boundary of a nation is always a process of “becoming”.There has never been a nation with a fixed boundary.Nation-states are also formed based on a centralized，imagined cultural heritage.One way to go beyond the static and singular approach to nationalism and nation-states is to recognize the fact that the heritage and culture of each nation-state are actually diverse and multi-directional.Studies on the construction of the new French nationalism of multi-cultural heritage （2015），the multi-ethnic interaction and mutual influence in Chinas southwestern region （2014），and the mixed cultural heritage （Buddhist and Islamic co-existence） in southern Thailand （2011） have provided meaningful demonstrations of the mixed and diverse cultural roots of nation-states.

On the other hand，as Anderson warns in his book，we should be cautious of producing nationalist knowledge in the research and discussion of nationalism.Anthropologists have long argued that the problem of identification is the true question to ask when speaking of identity.One possible refreshing research agenda，however，is to study how the nation-states are being shaped and reshaped through their interactions with the other.After all，when one imagines the nation or nation-states，one is in fact imagining the relationship between self and the other.

4.Conclusions

One cannot emphasize enough the importance of Andersons classic and stimulating work on nationalism and nation-states to all of social science academia.Nationalism and nation-states are always imagined，historically-conditioned，and multi-cultural.The research on nation-states，in turn，needs to go beyond a study on the singular nation or nation-ness，but explore the multiple influences and relationships within one nation-state or among the states in particular regions.

Key Words： Nationalism； Nation-States； Kinship； Imagined Community

References：

Alexander Horstmann.Living Together： The Transformation of Multi-religious Coexistence in Southern Thailand.In Journal of Southeast Asian Studies，2011

Bai Han，Tang Yun.Zhizao “taiyanwang” de guanghui—cong “zhizao luyi shisi”kan shensheng wangquan yu minzu guojia de suzao （Fabricating the Glory of the “Sun King”： The Divine Kingship and the Shaping of Nation-State in “The Fabrication of Louis XIV”）.In Journal of Ethnology，2015（4）.

Benedict Anderson.Imagined Communities： Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism.1983.Reprint Verso，2006.

Clifford Geertz.Negara： Theatre State in 19th Century Bali.Princeton University Press，1980.

Ernest Gellner.Nations and Nationalism.Cornell University Press，1983.

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James Frazer.The Golden Bough.1890.Reprint，Doubleday，1978.

Marshall Sahlins.The Stranger-King or，Elementary Forms of the Politics of Life，Indonesia and the Malay World，2008.

Peter Burke.The Fabrication of Louis XIV.Yale University Press，1992.

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