Chen Wei（陈伟），Luo Gang（罗刚），Zhang Sheng（张晟），Liu Shuangli（刘双丽）

College of Energy and Power Engineering，Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics，Nanjing 210016，P.R.China

（Received 15 October 2014；revised 11 June 2015；accepted 1 July 2015）

Developmenr Srraregy of Engine Bird Ingesrion Cerrificarion Technology

Chen Wei（陈伟）*，Luo Gang（罗刚），Zhang Sheng（张晟），Liu Shuangli（刘双丽）

College of Energy and Power Engineering，Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics，Nanjing 210016，P.R.China

（Received 15 October 2014；revised 11 June 2015；accepted 1 July 2015）

Absrracr：The development strategy of the certification technology on engine bird ingestion is proposed after reviewing the development history of engine bird ingestion certification in developed Western countries，and analyzing technical characteristics during different developing periods.Moreover，the main issues of bird ingestion certification technology，development program and strategy for the turbofan engines industry are addressed in detail.Finally，the relevant technique development is investigated and the main objects of bird ingestion certification technology for the turbofan engines are summarized and concluded.

development strategy；engines；bird ingestion；certification technology

0 Inrroducrion

Bird ingestion to turbofan engine seriously affects flight safety.Since 1960s，accidents such as Eastern Airline Lockheed 188 crashed in 1960［1］，Overseas National Airways DC10 rejected takeoff［2］，US Airways A320 ditched over the Hudson River［3］due to bird ingestion，have promoted a large amount of research in bird ingestion into turbofan engines all over the world.People realized that lessons from these above events should be learned and some regulations or laws should be registered to decrease the bird ingestion risk.The first regulation of bird ingestion was established in 1965［4］.With the development of the studies，more and more regulations have been announced and updated.Nowadays，the items of bird ingestion from Airworthiness Standard：Aircraft Engines（Federal Aviation Regulation Part 33.76）［5］in US and Bird Impact from Certification Standard：Engines（CS-E 800）in Europe［6］have become the current effective principles for decades.The above standards have effectively guaranteed the engine safety in structures and performance after bird ingestion.Therefore，the certification test becomes a very important procedure in manufacturing an engine.In the world，the developed countries like US&UK have grasped the technology of bird ingestion certification system.

With the rapid progress in aero engines for Chinese large crafts，the engine bird ingestion certification technology is of a great significance. However，the technology in China is in its infancy，and some significant problems and key technologies should be developed in accordance with the foreign experiences and present status.

1 Evolurion of FAA Bird Ingesrion Srandard

Before 1960s，there were no standards in terms of bird ingestion until the Electra crashed at Boston in 1960.Federal Aviation Administration（FAA）presented the clause of FAR33.13/ 19，which requested an commercial engine shouldpass through the bird ingestion certification，and also stipulated the weight of birds and the performance of engine after bird ingestion.In 1968，FAA AC33-1A updated the weight of birds and added medium bird as 1-2IB［7］.After DC10 crashed due to ingest a group of starlings in 1975，FAR33.77 AMDT6 revised the weight and number of birds again［8］.In 2000，FAA proposed AMDT20，which requested mix of 1.5&2.5lb，up to 5/6 birds dependent on engine size and other performance demands［9］.In 2007，AMDT23/24 raised the ingestion certification of large flocking birds and also demanded the performance of engine after ingestion［10］.After A320 ditched at the Hudson River，some research teams have reviewed bird ingestion statistics in last decades to assess the effectiveness of current rules，and whether revised rules need to be promulgated. Fig.1 shows the Evolution of FAA bird ingestion standards［11］.

Fig.1 Evolution of FAA bird ingestion standards［11］

2 Research Evolurion in Developed Counrries

Since the jet engines were put into service in 1940s，especially after World War II，a large number of test facilities，construction and fundamental theories have been built in western developed countries based on their powerful industrial ability［12］.By the end of 1960s，the research interests shifted to the components or sets of test technology and full-scale engine certification［13-15］. From 1980s on，with the development of the numerical simulation and advanced measuring methods［16-26］，the bird ingestion certification technology comes into an numerical era，with a jump in efficiency.The developed Western countries as US and UK have established the system of bird ingestion certification technology for turbofan engines.This virtuous cycle is made up of product complaint feedback，optimized design，components test，certification verification，products service and so on.Table 1 outlines the history of foreign bird ingestion test techniques development.

Table 1 Hisrory of foreign bird ingesrion resr rechniques developmenr

2.1 Fundamenral cerrificarion rechnology

During this period，due to the bird strike problems of aircraft and engines proposed，researchers urgently needed to reveal the bird impact physical processes and damage mechanism by experimental and numerical analysis.In order to reproduce the bird impact process in laboratory，there must be test devices which can accelerate the bird to its actual impact velocity in bird ingestion event.Therefore，gas gun become an essential testing equipment，and full size，large scale and versatile gas gun apparatus have been considerably developed since then.

The jet engine has been widely used in aviation since 1940s.In less than 20 years，some developed Western countries actively carried out the fundamental certification technology research and test facility construction［27］.A set of bird launch test rigs and full-scaled test facilities have been built up.

The S-series air gun test facilities of Arnold Engineering Development Center（AEDC）in US were built in 1950，among the guns the 180 mm diameters S-3 facility＇s launch velocity range could achieve from 61 m/s to 430 m/s（Fig.2）. AEDC became a famous fundamental research center in aero-engines.Then AEDC developed G-series high velocity air gun test facilities as well［28］.US air gun force can accelerate the projectile from hundreds of meters per second to the first universal velocity.At the same time，both Rolls-Royce of UK and General Electric of US developed various diameter and launch velocity air guns，and began to build full-scaled engine bird ingestion certification test facility.By the end of 1950s，western developed countries have accomplished fundamental condition construction essentially and grasped the test ability in engine bird ingestion.

Fig.2 S-3 gun of AEDC

2.2 Synrhesizing cerrificarion rechnology

During this period，with the development of the new-generation of afterburner military engine and high bypass ratio turbofan engine，the influences of birds impact have been widely considered and the damage mechanism of bird impacts are also grasped further.With the upgrade of newgeneration engine technology，anti-bird impact design should be carried out，including a large number of material mechanical tests，components tests and analysis.For the certification of engine bird ingestion test，the building of full-scaled test facilities should be put on the agenda.From the 1960s，western developed countries have paid attention to the test rigs for components and sets to estimate and promote the engine abilities when bird ingestion occurs.The fundamental test conditions were further improved［29-31］.

With the development of the spay engine，Rolls-Royce carried out a lot of research work in anti-foreign object ingestion technology.In 1961，Rolls-Royce built up at least one set of air gun with more than 203 mm in diameter，at the meantime，the vertical rotation test rig，the horizontal rotation test rig and the outdoors fullscaled engine test facility have been built up one by one［32］.At the same time，some countries such as France，Czechoslovakia，Canada have built up a lot of air guns and developed the bird ingestion certification techniques［33-34］.Figs.3，4 indicated the test facilities at those countries.

Fig.3 Air gun of Canada

Fig.4 Air gun of Czechoslovakia

With the emersion of a lot of novel materials，application of new structures and extensiveuse of high bypass ratio turbofan engine since 1970s，the bird ingestion certification technology has been further improved on the base of engine performance，reliability，economy and so on［35］. For example，the vertical rotation test rig could simulate dynamic response of foreign object impact single blade，as shown in Fig.5.The horizontal rotation test rig had exerted huge effect in foreign object impact the single or set of fan blades，as shown in Figs.6，7.At the same time，UK vigorously carried out design and test work in hollow titanium blade structure［36］，US had done a lot of tests in composite material blades structures［37］.And France promoted the components of the foreign object launch facilities［38］.From then on，western developed countries have confirmed the bird impact blade design principle of the certification technology system on the base of large amount of test works.

Fig.5 Vertical rotation test rig

2.3 Implemenring cerrificarion regularions and resr faciliry promorion

During this period，researchers have grasped bird impact mechanism，and proposed effective analysis and validation methods to carry out engine anti-bird impact design.Nevertheless，the research focus has been switched from single part and anti-bird impact design of components to integrated problems of engines after bird ingestion.

Fig.6 Single blade test

Fig.7 Blades set test

The bird ingestion tests of engines needed a large amount of test facilities and measuring equipment to validate airworthiness regulations of engines such as performance or structural integrity after bird ingestion.

On the base of the components and sets test，western developed countries carried out the research work on the full-scaled engine bird ingestion certification technology，and implemented certification regulations on their products.After the bird ingestion accident in Boston in 1966，the US Civil Aeronautics Administration（CAA）began to lead the certification regulations into the design and tests of engines in order to deal with bird ingestion accidents，and other developed countries also began to construct the full-scaled engine bird ingestion certification test facilities. By the end of 1960s，many famous engine designers and manufacturers have built up the fullscaled engine certification test facilities successively，and developed mature engine certification test technology［39］.According to requests of cer-tification，western developed countries redesigned or reconstructed the original test facilities，and developed some new equipment such as multipipes launch test facility and vacuum cabin.They took further progress on the details of the engine certification test technology，and built the fullscaled engine test facilities one by one.According to informal data，Pratt-Whitney in USA has 17 full-scaled engine test facilities.American GE has 11，one of which is shown in Fig.8.Fig.9 shows the facility of British Rolls-Royce.French SNECMA and Russian Perm have at least 4 each［40］.

Fig.8 GE Peebles Center of USA

Fig.9 Rolls-Royce Derby Center of UK

From the 1970s，high bypass ratio turbofan engines were widely used.As the progress in materials and in structures of fan blades or compressors，the composite material blades and the hollow blades structures became more significant. The development of British RB211 series engine，French and American CFM56 series engine，and American GE90 series engine were using the earlier test facilities and the accumulated test methods，to implement the certification regulations. Above-mentioned three series engines have made a lot of great success in the commercial operations.By then，western developed countries have made the limitation of the commercial engine market by using the certification regulations，and have monopolized the international civil aviation engines markets.

2.4 Developmenr in bird ingesrion srandard

From mid to late 1980s，with the development of computational numerical simulate techniques and impact dynamic analysis software，stable numerical analysis methods have been improved quickly.The combination between bird impact testing and numerical simulation became the significant change at this stage.Various advanced measuring methods and data analysis techniques extremely promoted the test level.

Western developed countries have expanded much more mature than any other countries since 1980s，their research work has come into a new period，the shortcomings of previous basic research were discovered continually，the primary causes of bird ingestion accidents＇failure were discovered by engine products operation feedback or accidents investigation.The fundamental scientific issues were extracted from the bird ingestion phenomenon into engines.The reasonable cycle of research work has been made in accordance with fundamental case study，data accumulation，optimized design principles，certification regulations modification，engines＇bird ingestion tolerance and so on.Four countries（USA，Russia，UK，France）have built up complete bird ingestion certification test centers and advanced test facilities.They have mastered bird ingestion test techniques，and can carried out the test works including materials mechanical properties testing，engine components testing，engine fan set testing，engine fan aerodynamic performance testing，full-scaled engine bird ingestion certification testing and so on.Bird ingestion certification regulations have definitely become the working standard in the operation of international civil aviation.Fig.10 exhibits the development of bird ingestion standard，the right upper corner of Fig.10 shows five kinds of bird concerned in the standard，and the left part of Fig.10 reveals the relationship between the birds＇weight/numberand the inlet throat area of engine.

Fig.10 Development of bird ingestion standard in bird weight and number

3 Developmenr Srraregy of Bird Ingesrion Cerrificarion Verificarion

Now engine bird ingestion certification technology becomes a very important method in finalize the design of an engine，which consummats the system of anti-FOD（Foreign object damage）design techniques.The technology must provide test achievements and design principles for the engines，and must specify the particular testing methods.On the other hand，the technology is a general standard and a significant and powerful tool in the cooperation of engine manufacturing among countries.

3.1 Telling civil regularions from milirary srandards

There is great difference between civil and military engines in operation circumstances，design requirements，performance parameters and so on.It is well known that，for the military products，people would pursue the ultimate output performance and limited duration reliability upon fighting，but the civil products would be designed not only to satisfy the long time performance and reliability，but also the economical efficiency and maintainability.Therefore，it is very important to straighten out the relationship between civil regulations and military standards according to the service goals.Therefore，the bird ingestion certification test should be carried out by different regulations or guidance of standards for different engines.

3.2 Gerring reference from exisring experience

Western developed countries have carried out the research work in engine bird ingestion certification for more than 70 years.UK and USA are leaders in the test work of engine bird ingestion. They have rich experiences in application of engine bird ingestion study，especially on new materials properties test and new structures design. UK has a lot of patents and experience on the research and test of hollow titanium fan blades，and US had powerful development strength on composite material fan blades＇study，operation and test.The above-mentioned two countries have learnt，competed and collaborated each other.As a consequence，they both have come into the engine bird ingestion certification technologies as intellectual property.Nowadays，the engine birdingestion certification technology systems from Rolls-Royce，Pratt&Whitney and Generate Electric have been the current general standards in the engine bird ingestion research of the world. It is very important to establish a special database in order to share experience and to learn each other between the designer and manufacturer under the guidance of the law of the intellectual property rights.

3.3 Making sysremaric plan and consrrucrion

The engine bird ingestion certification technology must be discussed on a strategy level so as to answer more and more fierce market competition.The first step should be to make a systematic plan to find out the disadvantages and distance to the final destination；then，to put a lot of effort to build up the whole sets of research equipments，which can help solve fundamental scientific questions of bird ingestion phenomenon in the industry.In accordance with requests of the certification regulations in the performance of components，the advanced test rigs or facilities should be constructed.At the same time，the numerical simulation analysis methods and advanced measuring techniques should be developed as well.It is of urgent importance to build up several full-scaled engine test facilities，which can carry out the real engine bird ingestion testing.Finally，it is necessary for the nation to make the engine bird ingestion certification technology be a mandatory provision.

3.4 Collaboraring by inrer-disciplinary，warch derails and close loops

The collaboration between relevant disciplinary，and the fundamental and supporting effects should be noticed on the procedure of engine bird ingestion certification technology＇s development. The inter-disciplinary may include biology，bionomics，management science and so on.For instance，there is an important part in the engine bird ingestion certification technology，i.e.birds＇situation investigation.The birds＇situation and their ecological environment have been investigated by many scientists，which include species，shape，weight，flight speed，life habit，migration of bird and so on，as well as airports environment.The survey results and the identified possible bird species and dangerous areas can be used to prepare the analysis of engine bird ingestion. On the other hand，the products operation database implementing and management are also necessary.Pratt-Whitney earns a huge team in charge of after-sale service，maintenance and analysis.Depending on Bird Strike Committee，Federal Aviation Administration，National Transportation Safety Board and so on，US government carried out the events including birds database survey，failure analysis and accidents investigation，and feedback to designer and manufacturer，thus，the closed loop has been built up. Fig.11 indicates the loop of engine bird ingestioncertification technology.

Fig.11 Loop of engine bird ingestion certification technology

4 Suggesrion ro Domesric Research Sysrem

In accordance with domestic technologies，economic level and test conditions，an appropriate planning must be proposed at the national level to face the increasingly fierce international competition.The domestic high bypass ratio turbofan engine bird ingestion testing system of independent intellectual property rights must be developed，which is recommended to following four steps：

The first step is to investigate the domestic institutions＇research capacities in the field of engine bird ingestion.After analyzing domestic technology requirements，considering western countries success experiences，we make relevant regulations and execution plan.

Secondly，based on domestic existing research conditions and works carried out in universities and research institutes.It is necessary to make breakthrough in the fields of key criterions，technologies and methods and improve test facilities and equipments.

Thirdly，by using CAD and numerical methods，simulations and estimations will be done for all components and parts as well as partial structure.Referencing other experiences，and utilizing existing equipments，the experiment analysis methods and techniques of numerical estimations for full-scaled engines should be grasped.

After the above three stages＇development，in accordance with the domestic regulations and requirements，the full-scaled engine bird ingestion test and analysis method should be developed soon，the research system is built into comprehensive support conditions of engine bird ingestion，and the facilities＇performance can fully cover the demands of engine bird ingestion tests.The engine bird ingestion test system is built up，and the testing technology reaches the leading level in the world.Table 2 shows the schedule of engine bird ingestion test techniques system programming for High Bypass ratio Turbofan Engines in China.

Table 2 Domesric engine bird ingesrion resr rechniques sysrem programming

5 Conclusions

The engine bird ingestion certification technology is a complex multi-disciplinary system concerning the subjects including mechanics，aero dynamics，automatical control，electric and so on.The technology has experienced the fundamental certification techniques，the synthesizing certification techniques，implementing certification regulations and test facilities construction and promotion.These technologies improve numerical simulation，products operation data analysis，accidents investigation，certification regulations modify，design principle and so on，which is worldwide used in the field of engine design and manufacture nowadays.

The engine bird ingestion certification technology is the foundation to straighten out the relationship between civil regulations and military standards.Learning and sharing the experience in the research and establishing a database are the important co-operation method，planning and construction are the effective solution to this issue，the inter-disciplinary way and program indetails are the basic working platform，and the closed loop is the most significant symbol to form the engine bird ingestion certification technology.

The technology itself is helpful not only to break through the technology monopoly in the field，but also to pursue and improve the international cooperation for globalization in the modern manufacturing.

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（Executive Editor：Xu Chengting）

V235.1Documenr code：AArricle ID：1005-1120（2015）05-0485-10

*Corresponding aurhor：Chen Wei，Professor，E-mail：chenwei@nuaa.edu.cn.

How ro cire rhis arricle：Chen Wei，Luo Gang，Zhang Sheng，et al.Development strategy of engine bird ingestion certification technology［J］.Trans.Nanjing U.Aero.Astro.，2015，32（5）：485-494.

http：//dx.doi.org/10.16356/j.1005-1120.2015.05.485